UNIT 1. Methods in Biological Psychology1. Thinking It Over, Christy Nicholson, APS Observer, September 2006
This series of related articles reviews the wondrous capabilities and promise of functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) as well as examining its hype. The ultimate question is whether studying the brain, no matter how good the technology, will get us any closer to understanding the human mind.
2. Really New Advances, The Economist, June 14, 2007
RNA was previously relegated to the role of “information shuttle.” However, whether it be in the way we look at cellular processes, or in our interpretation of evolution, this article makes it clear that RNA is on the cusp of some important paradigm shifts of the future.
3. Neuron Control, Emily Singer, Technology Review, March/April 2007
Far surpassing the preciseness of similar technologies like electrodes, neuroscientists have a new “on button” technology that allows researchers to stimulate cascades of neural activity at a single-cell level to examine the effects. Although currently used as a research technique, the tool appears to hold potential as a therapeutic treatment.
4. A Great Attraction, Hubertus Breuer, Scientific American Mind, June 2005
Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) offers the ability to disrupt or stimulate specific brain areas. This noninvasive and painless technique has current uses in research and clinical treatment of mood disorders. Speculation of TMS’ future application in cosmetic neuroscience is discussed.
UNIT 2. The Cells and Regions of the Brain5. The Dark Side of Glia, Greg Miller, Science, May 6, 2005
Despite outnumbering neurons 10 to 1, glia have historically been considered nothing more than support cells to the all-important neurons. However, evidence supporting their association in a host of central nervous system activities is mounting. Involvement of glia in numerous disorders and their potential for treatment are discussed.
6. Mirror Neurons: How We Reflect on Behavior, Eric Jaffe, APS Observer, May 2007
Mirror neurons refer to cells in the brain that translate others’ actions into the neural impulses that would accompany them if they were our own actions. The role of mirror systems has been investigated in learning music and languages, in having empathy to pain and emotions, as well as various clinical conditions.
7. Neural Correlates of a Mystical Experience in Carmelite Nuns, Mario Beauregard and Vincent Paquette, Neuroscience Letters, Vol. 405, 2006
Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) was utilized to investigate the neural correlates of mystical experiences. Areas of focus include the temporal lobe, which has long been implicated in experiences involving religiosity and conversion, as well as regions of the other areas of the cerebral cortex, the cingulate cortex, and brainstem.
8. Damage to Specific Part of the Brain May Make Smokers ‘Forget’ to Smoke, NIDA, NIDA Notes, January 25, 2007
A recent report linked brain damage in the insula to the ability to immediately stop smoking. As a result, this little-known part of the brain has people talking. This article looks at the insula’s complex role in subjective feelings and motivation as well as its implications for drug abuse.
UNIT 3. Neural Development and Plasticity9. New Neurons Strive to Fit In, Greg Miller, Science, February 17, 2006
Neurogenesis refers to the formation of new neurons in the adult human brain. Research has shown that these cells are very much like the malleable neurons generated early in development that are directly associated with neural plasticity and appear to hold great promise in treatment of brain injury and disease.
10. A Learning Machine, Leah Nelson, APS Observer, August 2006
This article highlights the individual contributions of five scientists specializing in the study of neural plasticity. The topic is explored from numerous vantage points and includes research conducted on animal models, children, and the elderly. All studies point to the human brain as resilient and malleable across the lifespan.
11. Uneven Regional Brain Development Contributes to Adolescent Risk-Taking, Lori Whitten, NIDA Notes, April 2007
Understanding that the frontal cortex does not fully mature until a person’s early twenties confirmed that kids think differently than adults. Here, researchers show that the characteristic risk-taking seen in adolescence is associated with an over-activation of the nucleus accumbens relatively unopposed by the frontal cortex until later in life.
UNIT 4. Genetic Influences on Behavior12. Nature, Nurture, Nuance, Eric Wargo, APS Observer, August 2006
Despite the appeal of taking a side on the issue of nature versus nurture, evidence tells us that in the realm of behavior, the two are inextricably linked. This article looks at not only the genetic influences on psychological disorders, but also the differences between individuals spawned from environmental effects.
13. Gene Variant Increases Risk for Alcoholism Following Childhood Abuse, National Institutes of Health, NIH News, June 26, 2007
It is clear that some children possess resiliency to childhood mistreatment. Variants in monoamine oxidase A (MAOA), a gene known to be involved in the body’s response to stress, have recently been linked to a girl’s likelihood of developing alcoholism as an adult after experiencing childhood sexual abuse.
UNIT 5. Sensation and Perception14. Psychophysics of Sweet and Fat Perception in Obesity, Linda M. Bartoshuk et al., Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, 2006
The sensation of taste, specifically for food, is critical for the individual’s liking and consumption of different kinds of food. Obese individuals tend to have a reduced sensitivity to the sweetness of food compared to nonobese individuals, which may lead to their greater liking for food of high fat content. The reduced sensitivity may be due to several factors, including genetic variability or damage to nerves (e.g., trigeminal nerves) that mediate the taste sensation.
15. Cortical Activation to Indoor Versus Outdoor Scenes, John M. Henderson, Christine L. Larson, and David C. Zhu, Experimental Brain Research, Vol. 179, 2007
The visual perception of the external environment involves specific regions of the brain. There is also a difference in perception of indoor versus outdoor scenes. With the use of fMRI, it was revealed that the posterior parahippocampal cortex (pPHC) was significantly more activated by indoor rather than outdoor scenes. This area is possibly involved in processing the 3D geometric structure of local environments. The retinosplenial cortex (RSC) did not differ in its activation to both types of scenes, but showed greater activation to scenes when compared to faces.
16. Olfactory Neurons Expressing Transient Receptor Potential Channel M5 (TRPM5) Are Involved in Sensing Semiochemicals, Weihong Lin et al., Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, February 13, 2007
The olfactory sensory neurons (OSN) located at the main olfactory epithelium at the roof of the nasal cavity are traditionally understood to mediate the sensation of common odorants. A group of these OSNs primarily located at the ventrolateral zone of the olfactory epithelium also respond to pheromones. These neurons have axons that project to the glomeruli of the ventral olfactory bulb, an area that processes pheromones and other semiochemicals.
17. Culture and the Physical Environment, Yuri Miyamoto, Richard E. Nisbett, and Takahiko Masuda, Current Directions in Psychological Science, Vol. 17, No. 2
Perception of stimuli (e.g., visual stimulus) present in the environment is not always the same for all people. One’s culture—defined as the social structure and practices one is accustomed to—can influence the perception of these stimuli. Westerners give more attention to focal objects while Asians attend more to the context of scenic stimuli. Such differences in perception could influence the construction of their respective environments.
UNIT 6. Motivation: Eating and Aggression18. Metabolic and Hormonal Control of the Desire for Food and Sex, Jill E. Schneider, Hormones and Behavior, Vol. 50, 2006
Sexual and eating behaviors are necessary for the survival of the species. These behaviors may be regulated by a similar set of hormones that orchestrate the expression of these behaviors. The hormones leptin and estrogen are both involved during the appetitive and consummatory phases of sex and eating. A similar set of hormones may also be involved in the development of obesity and eating disorders.
19. Modulation of Appetite by Gonadal Steroid Hormones, Lori Asarian and Nori Geary, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, Vol. 361, 2006
Gonadal hormones play a role in the regulation of eating in mammals, including humans. Eating patterns are associated with the reproductive cycles in females, which are in turn controlled by hormones of the hypothalamo-pituitary-gonadal axis (HPGA). Estrogen possibly mediates the effects of hormones such as leptin, ghrelin, and cholecystokinin (CCK) on eating. Sex differences in eating patterns may be due to the organizational effects of gonadal hormones during the early stages of life.
20. Influence of Aggressive Computer Games on the Brain Cortex Activity Level in Adolescents, V. G. Grigoryan et al., Human Physiology, Vol. 33, No. 1, 2007
Computer games that involve aggressive or violent scenarios are often the concern of society today. The brain (i.e., frontal and temporal lobes) responses of adolescents when playing these games vary according to their existing level of aggression. Furthermore, adolescents who scored high on measures of aggression showed decreased anxiety after playing the game, while the inverse was seen in those low in aggression.
UNIT 7. Reproductive or Sexual Behavior21. Mammalian Animal Models of Psychosexual Differentiation, Michael J. Baum, Hormones and Behavior, Vol. 50, 2006
Hormones are critical in the morphological and behavioral sexual differentiation in animals and humans. Gonadal hormones (e.g., testosterone and estrogen), as well as the testosterone metabolite estradiol are critical in the organization and activation of these characteristics. Animal models provide heuristic mechanisms and insights in understanding the development of human sexual preference or sexual orientation.
22. Ovulatory Shifts in Human Female Ornamentation, Martie G. Haselton et al., Hormones and Behavior, Vol. 51, 2007
The ability to attract a mate is critical in successful reproduction. In women, precopulatory behaviors may include attempts to be more attractive by intensifying the use of ornamentations, such as dresses and accessories. Indeed, women close to the time of ovulation appeared to intensify the use of ornamentations that were rated more attractive by others when compared to their post-ovulatory period.
23. Interaction of Fraternal Birth Order and Handedness in the Development of Male Homosexuality, Ray Blanchard et al., Hormones and Behavior, Vol. 49, 2006
Two of the more established correlates of human male homosexuality are handedness and birth order. More male homosexuals are non-right handed and the incidence of male homosexuality is greater for men with one or more older male biological siblings. Based on archival data, there is a significant interaction between these two variables and may be mediated by the perinatal effects on androgenic (e.g., testosterone) hormones.
UNIT 8. Sleep and Biological Rhythms24. Promoting Adjustment of the Sleep—Wake Cycle by Chronobiotics, Yvan Touitou and André Bogdan, Physiology & Behavior, Vol. 90, 2007
Chronobiotics are compounds that can influence the timing of the central biological clock. The biological clock influences the circadian rhythm of the sleep-wake cycle. Several candidate compounds have been found to influence the sleep and wakefulness, but few, such as melatonin, possess true chronobiotic properties. Vitamin B12 as well as some benzodiazepine drugs may also possess such properties.
25. Sleep and Immunity, Sarosh J. Motivala and Michael R. Irwin, Current Directions in Child Development, Vol. 16, No. 1, 2007
The immune system activity functions alongside the circadian rhythm, wherein an increase in the number of immune cells and concentration of cytokines are higher during night time when the person is asleep than during the day when the person is awake. Sleep deprivation can lead to increased cytokine activity, which can suggest an inflammatory response, as seen in certain diseases. Conversely, the presence of certain diseases can also intensify the immune response that can lead to sleep disorders.
26. Jet Lag, Jim Waterhouse et al., The Lancet, March 31, 2007
“Jet lag” is an uncomfortable state experienced when one moves across several time zones. This state may be caused by an alteration in the function of the biological clock located in the suprachiasmatic nucleus of the hypothalamus. Drugs such as melatonin as well as behavioral strategies can help alleviate the symptoms of jet lag.
UNIT 9. Emotions27. Beyond a Joke, Jaak Panksepp, Science, April 1, 2005
Joy and laughter are pleasurable human emotions. These emotions could also be present in animals, as the neural basis of these emotions in humans (i.e., subcortical dopamine system) is also evident in animals. Analogous behaviors of these emotions in animals include “play panting” in chimpanzees and 50-kHz chirps in rats during play.
28. Relation Between Cardiac Vagal Tone and Performance in Male Military Personnel Exposed to High Stress, C. A. Morgan III et al., Psychophysiology, Vol. 44, 2007
Vagal tone is considered as an index of one’s cognitive and emotional responses to perceived stimuli or situations, such as during stress. Military personnel who showed vagal suppression during simulated “stressful” situations performed well on various challenging tasks. Neuropeptide Y (NPY) may be involved in the stress response.
29. A Dynamic Model of Guilt, David M. Amodio, Patricia G. Devine, and Eddie Harmon-Jones Psychological Science, Vol. 18, No. 6, 2007
Guilt is considered a social emotion in humans. A notable frontal lobe activation is associated with a subjective report of guilt. The guilt response is also associated with an increased motivation for reparation after recognizing such emotion.
30. Is Automatic Emotion Regulation Associated with Agreeableness?, Brian W. Haas et al., Psychological Science, Vol. 18, No. 2, 2007
People’s emotional response to the faces of others depends upon the kind of emotion such faces exhibit. Based on FMRI studies, participants show a greater activation of the right lateral prefrontal cortex (LPC) when viewing “fearful” faces (therefore rating low on “agreeableness”) in contrast to a lesser activation when viewing a “sad” or “neutral” face.
31. Buzzwords, Johanna Kissler et al., Psychological Science, Vol. 18, No. 6, 2007
Writers recognize that emotionally-charged words are effective in literature. Participants presented with emotionally “pleasant” and “unpleasant” words showed early event-related potential (ERP) in the left occipito-temporal area of the cortex, but not to “neutral” words. The power of words may therefore have a neurophysiological basis.
UNIT 10. Learning and Memory32. Neuronal Competition and Selection During Memory Formation, Jin-Hee Han et al., Science, April 20, 2007
Neurons in the adult brain compete for functional dominance. The transcription factor (TF) CREB allows certain neurons in the amygdala to gain dominance in the formation of memory for fear conditioning.
33. The Memory Code, Joe Z. Tsien, Scientific American, July 2007
Neurons in the CA1 region of the hippocampus are involved in learning and memory. The coding of information for memory storage involves groups of neurons within the hippocampus called “neuronal cliques,” which process information in a hierarchical manner: from the general to the specific. A neuronal clique responds during the occurrence of a specific event, and can again manifest such response sometime after the event had occurred, suggesting a memory for such event.
34. Genetics, Dementia, and the Elderly, Margaret Gatz, Current Directions in Psychological Science, Vol. 16, No. 3, 2007
Several susceptibility genes have been identified in relation to Alzheimer’s Disease. Genes such as apolipoprotein E (APOE) gene located in the chromosome 19 and the amyloid precursor protein (APP) gene located in chromosome 21 are linked with this disease. The interaction between these genes, as well as the interaction between genes and the environment, can influence the occurrence of the disease.
35. The Secret to Not Losing Your Marbles, Lianne George, Maclean’s, April 9, 2007
The number of older adults in our population will increase dramatically in the next decade or so because the “baby boomers” are getting older. The incidence of dementia related to Alzheimer’s Disease (AD) is also associated with the elderly. New cognitive techniques (e.g., brain quizzes and puzzles) aim to provide “exercises” for the mind to stimulate the production of endogenous brain chemicals believed to combat these aging-related cognitive deficits and enhance brain functioning.
UNIT 11. Disorders of Behavior and the Nervous System36. Autistic Brains Out of Synch?, Ingrid Wickelgren, Science, June 24, 2005
Until recently, investigations into the neural correlates of autism have focused on the identification of specific affected brain areas. However, a growing body of evidence suggests that it is not a defect in particular brain areas, but the connections between them, that may be at fault in the disorder.
37. Changes in Anterior Cingulate and Amygdala After Cognitive Behavior Therapy of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder, Kim Felmingham et al., Psychological Science, Vol. 18, No. 2, 2007
Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is associated with abnormalities in the limbic system. Successful drug treatments have been shown to induce neural changes, but this study is the first of its kind to show neural alterations as a result of successful behavioral cognitive therapy.
38. Eyes Open, Brain Shut, Steven Laureys, Scientific American, May 2007
People who awaken from a coma but remain unconscious are considered to be in a vegetative state. These altered states are poorly understood both medically and legally. Currently, there are efforts to utilize imaging techniques to reliably differentiate those with “trapped consciousness” and those with little hope of recovery.
39. Dissecting Dyslexia, Thomas S. May, BrainWork, March/April 2006
Difficulty understanding written language is a common learning disability known to have a strong genetic component. Individuals with dyslexia also exhibit differences in brain structure and function compared to those without. However, research indicates that intensive behavioral intervention can utilize the brain’s inherent plasticity to overcome these deficits.
UNIT 12. Evolutionary Perspective40. Brain Evolution Studies Go Micro, Michael Balter, Science, March 2, 2007
Beyond the basic anatomy of centuries past, investigators are now capitalizing on histology and imaging to get a microscopic view of the cells that make up the brains across many species. These tiny differences between humans and primates seem to be related to those things that make us uniquely human.
41. Planet of the ... Dogs?, Eric Wargo, APS Observer, April 2007
Both humans and dogs show a similar ability to solve social problems that is lacking in chimpanzees and wolves, the closest evolutionary relatives. This is likely a result of domestication which, through evolution, altered the brain areas moderating fear and allowed for cooperation in societies.
42. Ten Politically Incorrect Truths About Human Nature, Alan S. Miller and Satoshi Kanazawa, Psychology Today, July/August 2007
This provocative article takes an evolutionary perspective on several types of human behavior seen across history and cultures. Claiming biology as the bad guy, we look at the influences of evolution on such varied behaviors as sexual harassment, midlife crises, and why gentlemen prefer blonds.
43. A Case for Angry Men and Happy Women, Beth Azar, Monitor on Psychology, April 2007
People are faster at identifying anger on men’s faces as well as seeing happiness on women’s. This process has been linked to the evolutionary advantage of being able to spot and avoid an angry and potentially dangerous male. This article addresses the deeply rooted connections between gender, emotions, and evolution.
UNIT 13. Ethical Issues44. Brain Scans Raise Privacy Concerns, Steve Olson, Science, March 11, 2005
With the amazing promise of current neuroimaging techniques, some are beginning to wonder about both the potential and pitfalls society will have to contend with in the face of its evolution. The ability to watch a brain’s ongoing thought processes has far reaching implications to many facets of our lives.
45. The Promise and Predicament of Cosmetic Neurology, Anjan Chatterjee, Journal of Medical Ethics, Vol. 32, 2006
Up for debate is the future and ethics of pharmacological enhancements, a form of cosmetic neurology used and designed for the improvement of individuals above and beyond normal performance. Ethical considerations vary from issues of safety, to an individual’s right to choose or reject these “treatments.”
46. Wanting Babies Like Themselves, Some Parents Choose Genetic Defects, Darshak M. Sanghavi, The New York Times, December 5, 2006
Preimplantation genetic diagnosis (PGD) allows DNA analysis of embryos so people at known risk for passing on diseases are able to identify and circumvent them for their children. However, PGD is also being utilized to select FOR some disabilities in order to ensure that parents have children like themselves.
