A

Abbreviation

A shortened version of a word, phrase, or title, often expressed as initials. For example, FBI is the abbreviation for Federal Bureau of Investigation.

Abstract Idea

A concept not rooted in concrete experience. Abstract ideas are often explained through examples.

Abstracts

Summaries or condensations of articles, books, theses, dissertations, films, and other sources. Reading an abstract is a quick way to determine whether a more thorough review of the source itself will yield useful information.

Adjective

A word or group of words that describes a noun or pronoun. An adjective tells the reader something about a person, place, or thing by answering questions such as "Which?" "What kind of?" and "How many?"

"Silly me," cried the old witch, "I misplaced my broom."

Adverb

A word or group of words that modifies or tells something about a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. Adverbs answer questions such as "Where?" "When?" "How?" "How often?" and "To what extent?"

She learned math quickly.
[Quickly modifies a verb.]

She learned math very quickly.
[Very modifies an adverb.]

She was extremely bright.
[Extremely modifies an adjective.]

Anecdote

A brief, often humorous, story designed to illustrate a point or idea. An anecdote can make an excellent introduction to an essay.

Antecedent

A word to which a pronoun refers. In the sentence below, Angelo is the antecedent of the pronoun his.

Angelo asked his brother to pass the milk.

A process by which a writer defends or proves a point or opinion through the use of logic and evidence.

A short word that comes before a noun. A and an are indefinite articles; the is the definite article.

An essay published in a newspaper, magazine, or other periodical.

The person or people who read one’s writing or listen to his or her speech. It is important to evaluate one’s audience so as to determine the level and type of language to use, the amount of information to provide, and the method by which to present that information. (See Chapters 8 and 10)

B

Brainstorming

A prewriting method for gathering information often completed with others. It usually results in a collection of notes written randomly across a page.

C

Cause and Effect

A method of developing a paragraph or essay by explaining why something happens.

An idea that a paragraph or essay supports or develops. All the information in a paragraph or essay should be focused on or related to the central idea.

A central idea is made up of a topic (subject) and a main point expressed about that topic. Here's an example:

Subject	Main Point
Diabetes	can be controlled.

A method of developing a paragraph or essay by distinguishing types or classes of the subject being discussed.

A group of words with a subject and a verb. There are two types of clauses: independent (main) clauses, which express a complete idea; and dependent (subordinate) clauses, which do not express a complete idea. Only independent clauses can be used as complete sentences.

An expression that is overused. Using clichés makes your writing stale.

cliché: Janice avoids her in-laws like the plague.
fresher: Janice never visits her in-laws.

A prewriting technique used to gather information. Like focused freewriting, clustering uses free association to record ideas and details at random on a blank piece of paper. The writer begins by writing the general topic in the middle of a page, then "clusters" related ideas and details around that topic.

The quality of a paragraph, essay, or other piece of writing that links ideas from sentence to sentence and from paragraph to paragraph in a manner that is logical, clear, and easy to follow.

A word that names a group. Use singular verbs and pronouns with collective nouns that name one group; use plural verbs and pronouns with collective nouns that name more than one group.

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An informal expression appropriate in relaxed conversation but inappropriate in formal writing.

A sentence error in which two main clauses are connected with a comma alone.

Comma Splice:	The campers hiked through dense woods in the dark, they knew they were lost.
Revised :	The campers hiked through dense woods in the dark; they knew they were lost.

Comparison/Contrast

Methods of developing a paragraph or essay. Comparison points out similarities; contrast points out differences.

A word or group of words that explains or defines the subject of a sentence and that is connected to that subject through the use of verbs such as is, are, was, has been, and will be.

A group of words that contains a subject and a verb and that expresses a complete idea. All complete sentences must contain at least one main (independent) clause.

CompoundSentence

A sentence made up of two independent (main) clauses that are joined by a coordinating conjunction (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so) and a comma. For example:

Budapest is the capital of Hungary, but Bratislava is the capital of Slovakia.

A formal ending to an essay that completes the paper’s explanation or argument logically and clearly. Several methods for writing conclusions appear in Chapter 8.

An inference or generalization drawn from facts or principles. In deduction, the conclusion is drawn from the major and minor premises of a syllogism:

MajorPremise:	All graduating students must write a senior thesis.
MinorPremise:	Angela hopes to graduate.
Conclusion:	Angela must write a senior thesis.

In induction, a conclusion is drawn from examining and evaluating separate pieces of evidence.

Conjunction

A word that joins words or ideas. A coordinating conjunction joins words or ideas of the same importance. A subordinating conjunction joins ideas by showing that one is less important than the other. Subordinating conjunctions introduce subordinate (dependent) clauses and join them to main (independent) clauses.

There are seven coordinating conjunctions: and, but, or, nor, for, so, yet.

There are several subordinating conjunctions, including although, as if, because, even though, rather than, since, though, unless, until, while, and whenever.

A word or phrase used with a semicolon to connect two main (independent) clauses. A conjunctive adverb shows how the main clauses it connects relate to each other. The most common conjunctive adverbs include:

as a result	in addition	nevertheless
consequently	indeed	nonetheless
however	moreover	therefore

A shortened form in which two words are combined and letters are replaced by an apostrophe.

Original		Contraction
they are	=	they're
could not	=	couldn't
you have	=	you've

CAUTION:

Using contractions tends to make writing informal. Therefore, avoid contractions if you want to maintain a formal tone.

A coordinating conjunction joins words or ideas of the same importance. There are seven coordinating conjunctions: and, but, or, nor, for, so, yet.

D

A pronoun that points to a noun that comes after it.

That is my final decision.
Those are his books.
This is my car.
These are your unalienable rights.

A method of developing a paragraph or essay by explaining a term and distinguishing it from related terms.

A group of words that cannot stand alone and depends for its meaning on an independent (main) clause. When it appears in a complete sentence, it is always attached to an independent (main) clause. Dependent clauses are highlighted in the sentences below:

After Melissa sang, everyone applauded.
Marion Jones, who became company president, was born in my hometown.
Mozart had composed musical masterpieces before he reached his teens.

A method of developing a paragraph or essay that is used to explain the nature or people, places, or things. Descriptive essays often rely heavily on information from the five senses: sight, hearing, touch, smell, and taste.

Facts, statistics, opinions, and other types of information used to develop or support ideas in paragraphs and essays.

A noun or pronoun that receives the action of a verb.

Last night we watched an old movie.
We enjoyed it.

An exact, word-for-word copy of original words, phrases, sentences, or paragraphs taken from a source you are using in a paper.

CAUTION:

Such material must be enclosed in quotation marks ("/").

A version of a written document. First drafts should always be revised two or three times at the least.

A prewriting method used to gather information. The writer begins with a broad subject, then divides it into subheadings or "branches." The writer then further subdivides those branches until he or she believes the topic has been limited sufficiently.

E

A stage in the writing process by which the writer corrects problems in grammar, punctuation, diction, and other important areas.

Top of Document

F

The central idea in a paragraph or essay. It is often stated in a topic sentence or thesis statement, but it is sometimes implied.

FocusedFreewriting

A prewriting method used to gather information. The writer focuses on a topic and writes on it for 5 or 10 minutes nonstop. No special attention is paid to grammar or other editing considerations at this point in the writing process, and ideas are recorded in random fashion, just as they come into the writer’s mind.

A group or words--a phrase or subordinate (dependent) clause --that is punctuated as if it were a sentence, yet it does not express a complete idea.

Fragment:	The maple grew quickly. Towering over smaller pines and birches.
Revised:	The maple grew quickly. It towered over smaller pines and birches.

Fused Sentence

A sentence error in which two main (independent) clauses are joined without a conjunction or correct punctuation. It is also referred to as a run-on sentence.

Fused Sentence:	There was no one near the campsite was deserted.
Revised:	There was no one near; the campsite was deserted.

G

A noun that is made from a verb by adding -ing. Gerunds name activities.

Swimming is my favorite sport.
Janice loves riding in the country.

H

I

A method to develop a paragraph or essay. Illustration explains abstract ideas by using concrete examples.

A pronoun that refers to people and things that are not named or are not specific:

any	everybody	nobody	some
anybody	everyone	no one	somebody
anyone	everything	nothing	someone
each	few	one	something

A group of words that contains a subject and a verb and that can stand alone as a complete sentence. Main clauses are highlighted in the sentences below:

After Melissa sang, everyone applauded.
Marion Jones, who became company president, was born in my hometown.
Mozart had composed musical masterpieces before he reached his teens.

Inference

A conclusion drawn from individual pieces of evidence.

Infinitive

An infinitive is the basic form of the verb preceded by to. Infinitives act as nouns, adjectives, and adverbs.

Noun: To be free is our greatest desire.
Adjective:We have the right to vote.
Adverb:I opened the window to get some fresh air.

A phrase that begins with an infinitive. Infinitive phrases can be used as subjects and direct objects.

Subject: To paint was her passion.
Direct Object: She loved to paint.

A word or phrase that interrupts a thought and often expresses emotion or strong feeling or is used to call attention:

Oh no, the dog did it again!

A prewriting method used to gather information by asking prepared questions of a person who has expert knowledge of the topic being addressed.

A paragraph or series of paragraphs that begins an essay. Introductions to college essays usually include a thesis statement. All effective introductions capture the readers’ attention and entice them to read on. Several methods for writing introductions appear in Chapter 8.

A verb that changes its spelling in different tenses. The most common irregular verb is to be.

Present
Singular	Plural
1. I am	1. we are
2. you are	2. you are
3. he/she is	3. they are

Past
Singular	Plural
1. I was	1. we were
2. you were	2. you were
3. he/she was	3. they were

J

Language used by experts in a specific field. If left undefined, jargon can sometimes confuse an audience that is unfamiliar with it.

A periodical that contains articles limited to a particularfield of study. Journals usually contain scholarly materials written by experts in the discipline, and they can be very useful to college students. Journals are published monthly, quarterly, semiannually, or annually.

Journalist’sQuestions

Questions that are used as a way to brainstorm about a topic. Known as the Five Wsand H, they are the same kind that a reporter uses to write a news story:

What happened?
Who was involved?
When and where did it happen?
How did it happen?
Why is this event important?

K

L

A prewriting method that uses lists to record broad details related to a topic.

M

A group of words that contains a subject and a verb and that can stand alone as a complete sentence. Main clauses are highlighted in the sentences below:

After Melissa sang, everyone applauded.
Marion Jones, who became company president, was born in my hometown.
Mozart had composed musical masterpieces before he reached his teens.

MainPoint

A central idea is composed of a subject (topic) and a main point. The main point is the specific statement the writer wishes to make about the subject. In the following examples, the subjects are in red; the main points made about those subjects are in highlighted in yellow.

Smoking	is harmful to one’s health.
Alonzo	is an accounting genius.
Prague	has an interesting history.

A word or group of words that describes another word. The most common modifiers are adjectives and adverbs.

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Mood

A form of a verb that helps reveal the writer's intention or purpose. There are four moods in English; (they are explained fully in Objective 22):

The indicative conveys information or asks a question:
You forgot to lock the door.
Will you lock the door?

The imperative commands, requests, or gives instructions:
Lock the door!
Please lock the door.
Lock the door by turning the latch.

The subjunctive expresses a desire, makes a suggestion, or explains something that is contrary to fact:
I wish I had locked the door.
They suggested that he lock the door.
Had he locked the door, the thieves would not have stolen his money.

The conditional answers questions such as "What would happen if"and "What happens when?"
If you lock the door, you won't be robbed.
When people leave doors unlocked, they invite thieves.

N

A method of developing a paragraph or essay that recalls events or explains how something occurs. Narratives arrange information in chronological order.

A word that names a person, place, or thing.

The tourists drove along a scenic highway in Wyoming.

A number expressed as a mathematical symbol rather than as a word. For example, 10 is ten expressed as a numeral.

O

A noun or pronoun that receives the action of a verb. A direct object is the person, place, or thing to which the action of a verb is aimed or directed. An indirect object is the person, place, or thing for whom (which) or to whom (which) the action is done.

	Indirect Object		Direct Object
He cooked	us		spaghetti.
They sent	us	an	invitation.

P

A unit of writing made up of complete sentences, which focuses, supports, or develops a main or central idea that is limited and well defined. Paragraphs can be as short as one sentence, but they usually contain several sentences.

The consistent and logical use of the same grammatical construction—word, phrase or clause--in a series.

Researched information expressed in your own words.

Generally, a paraphrase is about as long as the original.

ParentheticalCitation

The identification of a source from which the writer has taken information in the form of a direct quotation, a paraphrase, or a summary. A parenthetical citation appears in parentheses [(/)] in the text.

An adjective formed from a verb. Participles end in -d, -ed, -t, -en, or -ing.

paint + ed = painted
speak + en = spoken
fall + ing = falling
lose + t = lost

Participial Phrase

A phrase that begins with a participle and describes a noun or pronoun. Thus, participial phrases are adjectives.

Held as a prisoner of war, the pilot dreamed of going home.

Publications such as newspapers, magazines, and journals that are issued periodically (daily, weekly, monthly, quarterly, semiannually, and so on).

A pronoun that stands for a person or type of person. Personal pronouns can act as subjects or objects.

Subject: She won the marathon that we entered together last spring.
Object: The committee awarded her and us a research grant.

The process by which a writer convinces readers of the validity of a position and/or succeeds in getting them to act on that position. The basis of all persuasion is argument, but persuasion goes beyond argument by appealing to the readers' emotions and self-interest.

A group of words that does not contain a subject and verb. In order to make sense, a phrase cannot stand alone. It must be attached to a main clause to be part of a complete idea.

Phrases can appear anywhere in a sentence:

During the Civil War, brother fought against brother.
My sister, the oldest of four children, is a doctor.
She came to the party at my invitation.

The number of a noun, pronoun, or verb. Singular means one. Plural means more than one. Most plural nouns end in -s. Exceptions include words such as women, children, and deer.

The case of a noun or pronoun that is used to indicate ownership.

Do you know whose car this is?
Yes, it is Gene's Mustang.
Oh, I thought it was his brother's car.

A short word or group of letters that, when attached to the front of another word, gives that word a new meaning. For example, premature and anti-democratic have far different meanings than mature and democratic.

A word that comes before a noun or pronoun and shows how that word relates to other words in the sentence.

about	before	for	out
above	behind	from	over
across	below	in	through
after	between	inside	to
against	beyond	into	toward
along	by	near	under
among	despite	of	upon
at	during	on	with

Prepositional Phrase

A phrase created when a preposition is joined with a noun or pronoun.

The thief shoved the jewelry into his pocket and jumped from the window.

The stage in the writing process in which one gathers information about a subject.

A word that replaces a noun. A pronoun stands for a person, place, or thing. Learn the five types of pronouns: personal, relative, demonstrative, indefinite, and reflexive.

The process by which a writer checks for and corrects errors in spelling, mechanics, and typing in the edited draft of a paper. This is usually the final step in the writing process.

The objective a writer intends to accomplish in a piece of writing.

Q

R

Saying the same thing in different words; being repetitious and wordy.

Redundant: Doris told the doctor that her headaches still persist.
Correct: Doris told the doctor that her headaches persist.

A pronoun that ends in -self. It is used when the subject of a sentence does something to itself.

Jeremy found himself whistling in the wind.
The horse injured itself when jumping the fence.

A verb that forms its past tense by adding -d or -ed. All forms of regular verbs in the past tense are identical. All forms of regular verbs in the present tense are identical except the third-person singular:

Present
Singular	Plural
1. I call	1. we call
2. you call	2. you call
3. he/she calls	3. they call

Past
Singular	Plural
1. I called	1. we called
2. you called	2. you called
3. he/she called	3. they called

A pronoun that describes a noun by connecting it to a dependent clause, which the relative pronoun introduces and for which it acts as the subject. That and which refer to animals, things, and ideas. Who and whom refer to people. Whose can be used in all cases.

The Patels have found a house that they like.
They lived in Senegal, which is in Africa.
We met a reporter who had just returned from Bosnia.
The people whose party we went to were Cambodian.

	Relative Pronouns
that	whichever	whom
whatever	who	whomever
which	whoever	whose

A way to gather information about a subject by taking notes from books, articles, pamphlets, materials from the Internet, and other sources.

The stage in the writing process in which drafts of a paper are rewritten. Revising usually involves adding and removing detail; adding, deleting, or moving sentences and paragraphs; clarifying important points; and in general making major changes in the content and structure of an essay.

S

A group of words that contains a subject and a verb and that expresses a complete idea. All complete sentences must have at least one main (independent) clause.

A group of words that is punctuated as if it were a sentence, but

1) does not contain a subject or verb; or

2) does not express a complete idea.

No subject:	Ran the marathon. (Who ran in the marathon?)
No verb:	Running in a marathon. (What about running in a marathon?).
Incomplete idea:	After Jason ran in a marathon. (What happened after Jason ran in a marathon?)

The number of a noun, pronoun, or verb. Singular means one. Plural means more than one.

Verbs in the third person singular present tense end in -s.

Singular	Plural
1. I run	1. We run
2. you run	2. You run
3. he/she/it/one runs	3. They run

Slang

Informal language that has a private meaning among a limited number of people. It is inappropriate in formal writing.

A book, article, interview, thesis, pamphlet, or other item that provides information for a research project.

Subject

A person, place, or thing in a sentence that does the action or that the sentence describes. Nouns or pronouns can act as subjects. All sentences have subjects.

The taxi turned the corner.
The taxi was yellow.

Subordinating Conjunction

Words or short phrases that introduce subordinate (dependent) clauses and join them to main (independent) clauses. There are several subordinating conjunctions, including although, as if, because, even though, rather than, since, though, unless, until, while, and whenever.

A group of words containing a subject and verb, which cannot stand alone and depends for its meaning on a main (independent) clause. In a complete sentence, it is always attached to a main (independent) clauses.

After Melissa sang, everyone applauded.
Marion Jones, who became company president, was born in my hometown.
Mozart had composed musical masterpieces before he reached his teens.

Subordinate clauses are also known as dependent clauses because they depend for their meaning on main or independent clauses.

Researched information that is expressed in a condensed form.

Generally, a summary condenses one or more paragraphs into one or two sentences.

Supporting Details

Facts, statistics, opinions, and other types of information used to develop or support ideas in paragraphs and essays.

Syllable

A unit within a word made up of one or more letters that are pronounced together.

T

The time a verb indicates. The tense of a verb reveals the time--past, present, or future--in which the sentence or clause is set.

The central idea of an essay expressed in a complete sentence. When writing short essays for college composition courses, students should limit thesis statements to ideas that can be developed in less than 750 words.

The central idea of a paragraph expressed in a complete sentence. In general, topic sentences used in student writing should be limited to ideas that can be developed in less than a hundred words.

A word, phrase, and sometimes a whole sentence that makes a clear connection between one idea and another. A transition is also called a connective.

My grandfather spoke five languages.
However, he had never been to college.

A phrase that makes a clear connection between one idea and another.

I enjoy summers in South Carolina. My father, on the other hand, prefers to spend them in Maine.

U

The quality of a paragraph or essay by which all of the information it contains relates clearly to one central idea.

V

A word that shows what a subject does (action) or that helps describe the subject by linking it to an adjective.

The skyscraper rose into the clouds.
The skyscraper was impressive.

W

The habit of using more words than necessary to make your point clearly and emphatically.

X

Y

Z