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| caste system | A system of social stratification in which social position is determined by the family into which a person is born, and change in that position is usually not possible during an individual’s lifetime. (See page(s) 94) |
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| class consciousness | A tendency for individuals to perceive themselves in terms of their class background. (See page(s) 96) |
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| class system | A system of social stratification in which social status is determined by the family into which a person is born and by subsequent socioeconomic achievements. (See page(s) 94) |
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| Confucian dynamism | Theory that Confucian teachings affect attitudes toward time, persistence, ordering by status, protection of face, respect for tradition, and reciprocation of gifts and favours. (See page(s) 112) |
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| ethical systems | Cultural beliefs about what is proper behaviour and conduct. (See page(s) 96) |
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| ethnocentric behaviour | Behaviour that is based on the belief in the superiority of one’s own ethnic group or culture; often shows disregard or contempt for the culture of other countries. (See page(s) 115) |
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| folkways | Routine conventions of everyday life. (See page(s) 89) |
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| group | An association of two or more individuals who have a shared sense of identity and who interact with each other in structured ways on the basis of a common set of expectations about each other’s behaviour. (See page(s) 91) |
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| individualism versus collectivism | Theory focusing on the relationship between the individual and his or her fellows. In individualistic societies, the ties between individuals are loose and individual achievement is highly valued. In societies where collectivism is emphasized, ties between individuals are tight, people are born into collectives, such as extended families, and everyone is supposed to look after the interests of his or her collective. (See page(s) 110) |
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| karoshi | Japanese term meaning to die from overwork. (See page(s) 93) |
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| long-term vs. short-term orientation | Theory that deals with virtue regardless of truth; values associated with long-term orientation are thrift and perseverance; values associated with short-term orientation are respect for tradition, fulfilling social obligations, and protecting one’s “face.” (See page(s) 111) |
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| masculinity versus femininity | Theory of the relationship between gender and work roles. In masculine cultures, sex roles are sharply differentiated and traditional “masculine values” such as achievement and the effective exercise of power determine cultural ideals. In feminine cultures, sex roles are less sharply distinguished, and little differentiation is made between men and women in the same job. (See page(s) 111) |
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| mores | Norms seen as central to the functioning of a society and to its social life. (See page(s) 89) |
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| norms | Social rules and guidelines that prescribe appropriate behaviour in particular situations. (See page(s) 88) |
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| power distance | Theory of how a society deals with the fact that people are unequal in physical and intellectual capabilities. High power distance cultures are found in countries that let inequalities grow over time into inequalities of power and wealth. Low power distance cultures are found in societies that try to play down such inequalities as much as possible. (See page(s) 110) |
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| religion | A system of shared beliefs and rituals concerned with the realm of the sacred. (See page(s) 96) |
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| social mobility | The extent to which individuals can move out of the social strata into which they are born. (See page(s) 94) |
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| social strata | Hierarchical social categories often based on family background, occupation, and income. (See page(s) 94) |
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| society | Group of people who share a common set of values and norms. (See page(s) 88) |
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| uncertainty avoidance | Extent to which cultures socialize members to accept ambiguous situations and to tolerate uncertainty. (See page(s) 110) |
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| values | Abstract ideas about what a society believes to be good, right, and desirable. (See page(s) 88) |