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Table of ContentsContents
Preface xi
Chapter 1
The Crystal Structure of Solids 1
Preview 1
1.1 Semiconductor Materials 1
1.2 Types of Solids 2
1.3 Space Lattices 3
1.3.1 Primitive and Unit Cell 3
1.3.2 Basic Crystal Structures 4
1.3.3 Crystal Planes and Miller Indices 5
1.3.4 The Diamond Structure 9
1.4 Atomic Bonding 11
*1.5 Imperfections and Impurities in Solids 13
1.5.1 Imperfections in Solids 13
1.5.2 Impurities in Solids 15
*1.6 Growth of Semiconductor Materials 16
1.6.1 Growth from a Melt 16
1.6.2 Epitaxial Growth 18
1.7 Summary 19
Problems 21
Chapter 2
Introduction to Quantum Mechanics 24
Preview 24
2.1 Principles of Quantum Mechanics 25
2.1.1 Energy Quanta 25
2.1.2 Wave–Particle Duality 26
2.1.3 The Uncertainty Principle 29
2.2 Schrodinger’s Wave Equation 30
2.2.1 The Wave Equation 30
2.2.2 Physical Meaning of the Wave Function 32
2.2.3 Boundary Conditions 32
2.3 Applications of Schrodinger’s Wave Equation 33
2.3.1 Electron in Free Space 33
2.3.2 The Infinite Potential Well 34
2.3.3 The Step Potential Function 38
2.3.4 The Potential Barrier 42
*2.4 Extensions of the Wave Theory to Atoms 45
2.4.1 The One-Electron Atom 45
2.4.2 The Periodic Table 48
2.5 Summary 50
Problems 51
Chapter 3
Introduction to the Quantum Theory of Solids 56
Preview 56
3.1 Allowed and Forbidden Energy Bands 57
3.1.1 Formation of Energy Bands 57
*3.1.2 The Kronig–Penney Model 61
3.1.3 The k-Space Diagram 66
3.2 Electrical Conduction in Solids 70
3.2.1 The Energy Band and the Bond Model 70
3.2.2 Drift Current 72
3.2.3 Electron Effective Mass 73
3.2.4 Concept of the Hole 76
3.2.5 Metals, Insulators, and Semiconductors 78
3.3 Extension to Three Dimensions 80
3.3.1 The k-Space Diagrams of Si and GaAs 81
3.3.2 Additional Effective Mass Concepts 82
3.4 Density of States Function 83
3.4.1 Mathematical Derivation 83
3.4.2 Extension to Semiconductors 86
3.5 Statistical Mechanics 88
3.5.1 Statistical Laws 88
3.5.2 The Fermi–Dirac Probability Function 89
3.5.3 The Distribution Function and the Fermi Energy 91
3.6 Summary 96
Problems 98
Chapter 4
The Semiconductor in Equilibrium 103
Preview 103
4.1 Charge Carriers in Semiconductors 104
4.1.1 Equilibrium Distribution of Electrons and Holes 104
4.1.2 The n0 and p0 Equations 106
4.1.3 The Intrinsic Carrier Concentration 110
4.1.4 The Intrinsic Fermi-Level Position 113
4.2 Dopant Atoms and Energy Levels 115
4.2.1 Qualitative Description 115
4.2.2 Ionization Energy 117
4.2.3 Group III–V Semiconductors 119
4.3 The Extrinsic Semiconductor 120
4.3.1 Equilibrium Distribution of Electrons and Holes 121
4.3.2 The n0p0 Product 124
*4.3.3 The Fermi–Dirac Integral 125
4.3.4 Degenerate and Nondegenerate Semiconductors 127
4.4 Statistics of Donors and Acceptors 128
4.4.1 Probability Function 128
4.4.2 Complete Ionization and Freeze-Out 129
4.5 Charge Neutrality 132
4.5.1 Compensated Semiconductors 133
4.5.2 Equilibrium Electron and Hole Concentrations 133
4.6 Position of Fermi Energy Level 139
4.6.1 Mathematical Derivation 139
4.6.2 Variation of EF with Doping Concentration and Temperature 142
4.6.3 Relevance of the Fermi Energy 144
4.7 Summary 145
Problems 148
Chapter 5
Carrier Transport Phenomena 154
Preview 154
5.1 Carrier Drift 154
5.1.1 Drift Current Density 155
5.1.2 Mobility Effects 157
5.1.3 Conductivity 162
5.1.4 Velocity Saturation 167
5.2 Carrier Diffusion 169
5.2.1 Diffusion Current Density 170
5.2.2 Total Current Density 173
5.3 Graded Impurity Distribution 173
5.3.1 Induced Electric Field 174
5.3.2 The Einstein Relation 176
*5.4 The Hall Effect 177
5.5 Summary 180
Problems 182
Chapter 6
Nonequilibrium Excess Carriers in Semiconductors 189
Preview 189
6.1 Carrier Generation and Recombination 190
6.1.1 The Semiconductor in Equilibrium 190
6.1.2 Excess Carrier Generation and Recombination 191
6.2 Characteristics of Excess Carriers 194
6.2.1 Continuity Equations 195
6.2.2 Time-Dependent Diffusion
Equations 196
6.3 Ambipolar Transport 197
6.3.1 Derivation of the Ambipolar Transport Equation 198
6.3.2 Limits of Extrinsic Doping and Low Injection 200
6.3.3 Applications of the Ambipolar Transport Equation 203
6.3.4 Dielectric Relaxation Time Constant 211
*6.3.5 Haynes–Shockley Experiment 213
6.4 Quasi-Fermi Energy Levels 216
*6.5 Excess-Carrier Lifetime 218
6.5.1 Shockley–Read–Hall Theory of Recombination 219
6.5.2 Limits of Extrinsic Doping and Low Injection 222
*6.6 Surface Effects 224
6.6.1 Surface States 224
6.6.2 Surface Recombination Velocity 226
6.7 Summary 229
Problems 231
Chapter 7
The pn Junction 238
Preview 238
7.1 Basic Structure of the pn Junction 238
7.2 Zero Applied Bias 240
7.2.1 Built-in Potential Barrier 240
7.2.2 Electric Field 242
7.2.3 Space Charge Width 246
7.3 Reverse Applied Bias 247
7.3.1 Space Charge Width and Electric Field 248
7.3.2 Junction Capacitance 251
7.3.3 One-Sided Junctions 253
*7.4 Nonuniformly Doped Junctions 255
7.4.1 Linearly Graded Junction 255
7.4.2 Hyperabrupt Junctions 258
7.5 Summary 260
Problems 262
Chapter 8
The pn Junction Diode 268
Preview 268
8.1 pn Junction Current 269
8.1.1 Qualitative Description of Charge Flow in a pn Junction 269
8.1.2 Ideal Current–Voltage Relationship 270
8.1.3 Boundary Conditions 271
8.1.4 Minority Carrier Distribution 275
8.1.5 Ideal pn Junction Current 277
8.1.6 Summary of Physics 281
8.1.7 Temperature Effects 284
8.1.8 The “Short” Diode 284
8.2 Small-Signal Model of the pn Junction 286
8.2.1 Diffusion Resistance 286
8.2.2 Small-Signal Admittance 288
8.2.3 Equivalent Circuit 295
8.3 Generation–Recombination Currents 297
8.3.1 Reverse-Bias Generation Current 297
8.3.2 Forward-Bias Recombination Current 300
8.3.3 Total Forward-Bias Current 303
8.4 Junction Breakdown 305
*8.5 Charge Storage and Diode Transients 309
8.5.1 The Turn-off Transient 309
8.5.2 The Turn-on Transient 312
*8.6 The Tunnel Diode 313
8.7 Summary 316
Problems 318
Chapter 9
Metal–Semiconductor and Semiconductor Heterojunctions 326
Preview 326
9.1 The Schottky Barrier Diode 326
9.1.1 Qualitative Characteristics 327
9.1.2 Ideal Junction Properties 329
9.1.3 Nonideal Effects on the Barrier Height 333
9.1.4 Current–Voltage Relationship 337
9.1.5 Comparison of the Schottky Barrier Diode and the pn Junction Diode 341
9.2 Metal–Semiconductor Ohmic Contacts 344
9.2.1 Ideal Nonrectifying Barriers 345
9.2.2 Tunneling Barrier 346
9.2.3 Specific Contact Resistance 348
9.3 Heterojunctions 349
9.3.1 Heterojunction Materials 350
9.3.2 Energy-Band Diagrams 350
9.3.3 Two-Dimensional Electron Gas 351
*9.3.4 Equilibrium Electrostatics 354
*9.3.5 Current–Voltage Characteristics 359
9.4 Summary 359
Problems 361
Chapter 10
The Bipolar Transistor 367
Preview 367
10.1 The Bipolar Transistor Action 368
10.1.1 The Basic Principle of Operation 369
10.1.2 Simplified Transistor Current Relations 370
10.1.3 The Modes of Operation 374
10.1.4 Amplification with Bipolar Transistors 376
10.2 Minority Carrier Distribution 377
10.2.1 Forward-Active Mode 378
10.2.2 Other Modes of Operation 384
10.3 Low-Frequency Common-Base Current Gain 385
10.3.1 Contributing Factors 386
10.3.2 Mathematical Derivation of Current Gain Factors 388
10.3.3 Summary 392
10.3.4 Example Calculations of the Gain Factors 393
10.4 Nonideal Effects 397
10.4.1 Base Width Modulation 397
10.4.2 High Injection 401
10.4.3 Emitter Bandgap Narrowing 403
10.4.4 Current Crowding 405
*10.4.5 Nonuniform Base Doping 406
10.4.6 Breakdown Voltage 408
10.5 Equivalent Circuit Models 413
*10.5.1 Ebers–Moll Model 414
10.5.2 Gummel–Poon Model 416
10.5.3 Hybrid-Pi Model 418
10.6 Frequency Limitations 422
10.6.1 Time-Delay Factors 422
10.6.2 Transistor Cutoff Frequency 424
10.7 Large-Signal Switching 427
10.7.1 Switching Characteristics 427
10.7.2 The Schottky-Clamped Transistor 429
*10.8 Other Bipolar Transistor Structures 430
10.8.1 Polysilicon Emitter BJT 430
10.8.2 Silicon–Germanium Base Transistor 431
10.8.3 Heterojunction Bipolar Transistors 434
10.9 Summary 435
Problems 438
Chapter 11
Fundamentals of the Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistor 449
Preview 449
11.1 The Two-Terminal MOS Structure 450
11.1.1 Energy-Band Diagrams 450
11.1.2 Depletion Layer Thickness 455
11.1.3 Work Function Differences 458
11.1.4 Flat-Band Voltage 462
11.1.5 Threshold Voltage 465
11.1.6 Charge Distribution 471
11.2 Capacitance–Voltage Characteristics 474
11.2.1 Ideal C-V Characteristics 474
11.2.2 Frequency Effects 479
11.2.3 Fixed Oxide and Interface Charge Effects 480
11.3 The Basic MOSFET Operation 483
11.3.1 MOSFET Structures 483
11.3.2 Current–Voltage Relationship—Concepts 486
*11.3.3 Current–Voltage Relationship—Mathematical Derivation 490
11.3.4 Transconductance 498
11.3.5 Substrate Bias Effects 499
11.4 Frequency Limitations 502
11.4.1 Small-Signal Equivalent Circuit 502
11.4.2 Frequency Limitation Factors and Cutoff Frequency 504
*11.5 The CMOS Technology 507
11.6 Summary 509
Problems 513
Chapter 12
Metal–Oxide–Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistor: Additional Concepts 523
Preview 523
12.1 Nonideal Effects 524
12.1.1 Subthreshold Conduction 524
12.1.2 Channel Length Modulation 526
12.1.3 Mobility Variation 530
12.1.4 Velocity Saturation 532
12.1.5 Ballistic Transport 534
12.2 MOSFET Scaling 534
12.2.1 Constant-Field Scaling 534
12.2.2 Threshold Voltage—First Approximations 535
12.2.3 Generalized Scaling 536
12.3 Threshold Voltage Modifications 537
12.3.1 Short-Channel Effects 537
12.3.2 Narrow-Channel Effects 541
12.4 Additional Electrical Characteristics 543
12.4.1 Breakdown Voltage 544
*12.4.2 The Lightly Doped Drain Transistor 550
12.4.3 Threshold Adjustment by Ion Implantation 551
*12.5 Radiation and Hot-Electron Effects 554
12.5.1 Radiation-Induced Oxide Charge 555
12.5.2 Radiation-Induced Interface States 558
12.5.3 Hot-Electron Charging Effects 560
12.6 Summary 561
Problems 563
Chapter 13
The Junction Field-Effect Transistor 570
Preview 570
13.1 JFET Concepts 571
13.1.1 Basic pn JFET Operation 571
13.1.2 Basic MESFET Operation 575
13.2 The Device Characteristics 577
13.2.1 Internal Pinchoff Voltage, Pinchoff Voltage, and Drain-to-Source
Saturation Voltage 577
13.2.2 Ideal DC Current-Voltage Relationship—Depletion Mode JFET 582
13.2.3 Transconductance 587
13.2.4 The MESFET 588
*13.3 Nonideal Effects 593
13.3.1 Channel Length Modulation 594
13.3.2 Velocity Saturation Effects 596
13.3.3 Subthreshold and Gate Current Effects 596
*13.4 Equivalent Circuit and Frequency Limitations 598
13.4.1 Small-Signal Equivalent Circuit 598
13.4.2 Frequency Limitation Factors and Cutoff Frequency 600
*13.5 High Electron Mobility Transistor 602
13.5.1 Quantum Well Structures 603
13.5.2 Transistor Performance 604
13.6 Summary 609
Problems 611
Chapter 14
Optical Devices 617
Preview 617
14.1 Optical Absorption 618
14.1.1 Photon Absorption Coefficient 618
14.1.2 Electron–Hole Pair Generation Rate 621
14.2 Solar Cells 623
14.2.1 The pn Junction Solar Cell 623
14.2.2 Conversion Efficiency and Solar Concentration 626
14.2.3 Nonuniform Absorption Effects 628
14.2.4 The Heterojunction Solar Cell 628
14.2.5 Amorphous Silicon Solar Cells 630
14.3 Photodetectors 631
14.3.1 Photoconductor 632
14.3.2 Photodiode 634
14.3.3 PIN Photodiode 639
14.3.4 Avalanche Photodiode 640
14.3.5 Phototransistor 641
14.4 Photoluminescence and Electroluminescence 642
14.4.1 Basic Transitions 643
14.4.2 Luminescent Efficiency 645
14.4.3 Materials 645
14.5 Light Emitting Diodes 647
14.5.1 Generation of Light 648
14.5.2 Internal Quantum Efficiency 648
14.5.3 External Quantum Efficiency 649
14.5.4 LED Devices 651
14.6 Laser Diodes 653
14.6.1 Stimulated Emission and Population Inversion 654
14.6.2 Optical Cavity 656
14.6.3 Threshold Current 657
14.6.4 Device Structures and Characteristics 658
14.7 Summary 661
Problems 663
Chapter 15
Semiconductor Power Devices 668
Preview 668
15.1 Power Bipolar Transistors 668
15.1.1 Vertical Power Transistor Structure 669
15.1.2 Power Transistor Characteristics 670
15.1.3 Darlington Pair Configuration 674
15.2 Power MOSFETs 676
15.2.1 Power Transistor Structures 676
15.2.2 Power MOSFET Characteristics 678
15.2.3 Parasitic BJT 682
15.3 Heat Sinks and Junction Temperature 683
15.4 The Thyristor 686
15.4.1 The Basic Characteristics 686
15.4.2 Triggering the SCR 689
15.4.3 SCR Turn-Off 692
15.4.4 Device Structures 692
15.5 Summary 696
Problems 698
Appendix A
Selected List of Symbols 703
Appendix B
System of Units, Conversion Factors,
and General Constants 711
Appendix C
The Periodic Table 715
Appendix D
The Error Function 717
Appendix E
“Derivation” of Schrodinger’s Wave Equation 719
Appendix F
Unit of Energy—The Electron-Volt 721
Appendix G
Answers to Selected Problems 723
Index 731 |
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2003 McGraw-Hill Higher Education