Earth Science Information Center: Table of Contents


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	Student Edition
	Instructor Edition

Earth Science: Understanding Environmental Systems

Edgar W. Spencer, Washington and Lee University

ISBN: 0072341467
Copyright year: 2002

Preface xiii

Meet the Author xvii

The Proven Earth Science Learning System xix

Introduction to Earth System Science    3
   Chapter Guide    3
   What Is Science?    5
   Earth System Science    6
   Earth Systems    6
   The Earth Model    8
   Plate Tectonics     9
   Energy for Earth Systems    9
   The Methodology of Earth System Science    10
   Monitoring the Environment    11
   Key Words    12

unit one

Major Elements of Earth Systems 13

1 The Building Blocks of Earth Materials    15
   Chapter Guide    15
   Introduction    16
   The Nature of Matter    16
   States of Matter on Earth    20
   Earth Materials    21
   Gases in Earth's Environment    22
   Liquids in Earth's Environment    23
   Organic Compounds    27
   Tracing Matter Through Earth Systems—Biogeochemical Cycles    29
   Summary Points    33
   Review Questions    33
   Thinking Critically    33
   Key Words    33

2 Minerals and the Rock Cycle    35
   Chapter Guide    35
   Introduction    36
   Minerals    36
   The Rock Cycle    41
   Igneous Rocks    42
   Sediment and Sedimentary Rocks    47
   Metamorphic Rocks    51
   Summary Points    54
   Review Questions    55
   Thinking Critically    55
   Key Words    55

3 Earth Model—Core-Mantle System    57
   Chapter Guide    57
   Introduction    58
   Earth's Surface    58
   Exploring Earth's Interior    62
   Using Seismic Waves to Model Earth's Interior    63
   The Crust    66
   The Lithosphere and Asthenosphere    67
   The Mantle    71
   The Core    72
   Earth's Magnetic Field    73
   Summary Points    76
   Review Questions    77
   Thinking Critically    77
   Key Words    77

4 Time and Change in Earth Systems    79
   Chapter Guide    79
   Introduction    80
   Time Frame—Hours to Decades    80
   Time Frame—Decades to Centuries    81
   Time Frame—Thousands to Millions of Years—The Geologic Perspective    82
   The Rock Record    83
   The Geologic Time Scale    89
   Measuring Absolute Time    93
   Pivotal Events in Earth's History    96
   Summary Points    101
   Review Questions    101
   Thinking Critically    101
   Key Words    101

unit two

The Plate Tectonic System 103

5 Plate Tectonics and Mountain Building    105
   Chapter Guide    105
   Introduction    106
   The Role of Plate Tectonics in Environmental Systems    107
   Evolution of Plate Tectonic Theory    107
   Tectonic Cycles    116
   Mountain Building    118
   Summary Points    125
   Review Questions    125
   Thinking Critically    125
   Key Words    125

6 Earthquakes    127
   Chapter Guide    127
   Introduction    128
   Causes of Earthquakes    128
   Effects of Earthquakes    131
   Detection of Seismic Waves    132
   Measuring Earthquake Intensity and Magnitude    135
   Earthquakes in Stable Areas    136
   Earthquakes in Seismically Active Areas    138
   Planning to Avoid Disaster    143
   Summary Points    147
   Review Questions    147
   Thinking Critically    147
   Key Words    147

7 Volcanic Activity    149
   Chapter Guide    149
   Introduction    150
   Geography of Modern Volcanism    150
   Beneath Volcanoes    151
   Products of Volcanic Activity    152
   Anatomy of Volcanoes    155
   Eruptive Styles    158
   The Role of Volcanic Activity in Earth Systems    169
   Volcanic Hazards    170
   Summary Points    170
   Review Questions    171
   Thinking Critically    171
   Key Words    171

unit three

Earth's Physical Climate System 173

part 1 Oceans and Coasts

8 The Sea Floor and Marine Environments    175
   Chapter Guide     175
   Introduction    176
   The Sea Floor—Oceanic Ridges    176
   The Sea Floor—Abyssal Plains    177
   The Sea Floor—Passive Continental Margins    179
   The Sea Floor—Active Continental Margins    183
   Marine Environments    184
   Biological Communities and Their Sedimentary Record    185
   Special Oceanic Environments    190
   The Role of the Oceans in Biogeochemical Cycles    193
   Summary Points    194
   Review Questions    195
   Thinking Critically    195
   Key Words    195

9 Ocean Dynamics    197
   Chapter Guide    197
   Introduction    198
   Composition and Properties of Seawater    198
   Near-Surface Circulation in the Oceans    201
   Deep-Sea Circulation    207
   Ocean-Atmosphere Interactions    209
   Tides    212
   Summary Points    216
   Review Questions    216
   Thinking Critically    216
   Key Words    217

10 Coasts and Coastal Environments    219
   Chapter Guide    219
   Introduction    220
   Sea Level    220
   Processes That Shape the Shore    223
   Coastal Environments    226
   Summary Points    238
   Review Questions    239
   Thinking Critically    239
   Key Words    239

part 2 The Atmosphere

11 Earth's Atmosphere    241
   Chapter Guide    241
   Introduction    242
   Composition and Structure of the Atmosphere    242
   Heat Balance in the Atmosphere    247
   The Atmosphere—Problems and Issues    253
   Summary Points    256
   Review Questions    256
   Thinking Critically    256
   Key Words    257

12 The Atmosphere in Motion    259
   Chapter Guide    259
   Introduction     260
   Factors That Govern the Movement of Air    260
   The Vertical Movement of Air    263
   The Influence of Continents and Oceans on Air Masses    264
   Global Patterns of Circulation    265
   Wave-Cyclones and Middle-Latitude Storms    268
   Summary Points    276
   Review Questions    276
   Thinking Critically    277
   Key Words    277

13 Climate—Past, Present, and Future    279
   Chapter Guide    279
   Introduction    280
   Earths Modern Climate    281
   Earth's Physical Climate System    284
   Earth's Ancient Climates    287
   Modeling Earth's Physical Climate System    290
   Causes of Long-Term Climate Change    292
   Sudden and Irregular Climate Changes    293
   The Role of Oceanic Circulation    294
   Predicting Future Climate    296
   Summary Points    297
   Review Questions    297
   Thinking Critically    297
   Key Words    297

part 3 The Land Surface

14 Introduction to Earth's Land Environments    299
   Chapter Guide    200
   Introduction    300
   Defining Earth's Land Environments    301
   The Geologic Framework of Land Environments    303
   Using Climate and Plants to Define Environments    309
   Wetlands    314
   Summary Points    316
   Review Questions    317
   Thinking Critically    317
   Key Words    317

15 Weathering and Soil Development    319
   Chapter Guide    319
   Introduction    320
   Weathering    320
   Mineral Resources Formed by Weathering    327
   Soils    328
   Summary Points    335
   Review Questions    335
   Thinking Critically    335
   Key Words    335

16 Mass Wasting—The Work of Gravity    337
   Chapter Guide    337
   Introduction    338
   Materials and Mechanisms    338
   Famous Cases of Mass Wasting    344
   Subsidence and Collapse    347
   Avoiding and Preventing Mass Wasting    349
   Summary Points    350
   Review Questions    351
   Thinking Critically    351
   Key Words    351

17 The Role of the Wind    353
   Chapter Guide    353
   Introduction    354
   The Role of Wind in Earth Systems    355
   Wind as a Geomorphic Agent    355
   Ecological Effects of Wind    362
   Reducing Adverse Effects of the Wind    363
   Summary Points    364
   Review Questions    364
   Thinking Critically    365
   Key Words    365

18 Streams    367
   Chapter Guide    367
   Introduction    368
   Formation of Streams    369
   Principles Governing Stream Action    370
   How Streams Shape the Landscape    376
   Human Impacts on the Hydrologic Cycle, and Vice Versa    382
   Flooding    386
   Surface-Water—Ground-Water Connection    390
   Summary Points    390
   Review Questions    391
   Thinking Critically    391
   Key Words    391

19 Ground Water    393
   Chapter Guide    393
   Introduction    394
   The Role of Ground Water in Earth Systems    394
   The Origin of Water in the Ground    394
   Infiltration of Water into the Ground    394
   Storage of Water Underground    395
   The Shape of Saturated Zones in the Ground    396
   Movement of Ground Water     400
   Geysers    401
   How Ground Water Shapes the Landscape    402
   Environmental Problems in Karst Regions    405
   Ground-Water Supply    406
   Summary Points    412
   Review Questions    413
   Thinking Critically    413
   Key Words    413

20 The Role of Ice in Earth Systems    415
   Chapter Guide    415
   Introduction    416
   The Climatic Effects of Ice on Earth    416
   The Interaction Between Ice and the Sea    417
   Glaciers    418
   The Role of Glaciers in Shaping the Modern Landscape    419
   Beyond the Ice Margin    427
   The Effects of Continental Glaciation on Human History    430
   What Causes Ice Ages?    432
   Summary Points    432
   Review Questions    432
   Thinking Critically    433
   Key Words    433

unit four

The Solar System and Its Place in the Universe 435

21 Earth's Neighbors in Space—The Solar System    437
   Chapter Guide    437
   Introduction    438
   The Sun    438
   The Planets    439
   The Terrestrial Planets    440
   The Jovian Planets    445
   Comets, Asteroids, and Meteorites    448
   The Origin of Planets    451
   Summary Points    456
   Review Questions    457
   Thinking Critically    457
   Key Words    457

22 Beyond the Solar System    459
   Chapter Guide    459
   Introduction    460
   Locating Objects in Space    460
   Analyzing the Composition of Stars    460
   Vast Groups of Stars    461
   Origin and Evolution of the Universe    466
   Summary Points    468
   Review Questions    468
   Thinking Critically    468
   Key Words    468

Appendix A Units and Conversions    469
Appendix B Minerals    471
Appendix C Rock Identification    475
Appendix D Topographic and Geologic Maps    479
Appendix E Star Charts    480
Appendix F The Periodic Table of Elements    483
Glossary    485
Credits    501
Index    505

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