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 |  Conservation Biology: Foundations, Concepts, Applications Fred Van Dyke
Table of ContentsPrefacePART ONEFoundationsCHAPTER 1The History and Distinctions of Conservation Biology 3
Fundamental Perspectives and Questions for an Inquiry into Conservation Biology 3
Ethical Roots and Conceptual Foundations 4
The Problem of Perspective: How Has Conservation Developed in Historical Context? 5
Definition and Understanding 5
Origins of Conservation Institution and Policy in the United States 6
Conservation Biology Emerges as a Professional Discipline: Why Frustration Led to Innovation 13
The Problem of Identity: What Are the Conceptually Distinctive Characteristics of Conservation Biology? 15
Criticisms of Conservation Biology and Its Overlap with Other Disciplines 17
The Problems Addressed by Conservation Biologists 17
Studying and Learning from This Text: A Perspective 24
What Makes Conservation Biology a Distinctive Discipline—A Directed Discussion 25CHAPTER 2The Legal Foundations of Conservation Biology 28
Conservation and Law 28
The Development of Conservation Legislation and Policy in the United States 29
Common Characteristics of Effective Conservation Law 32
The Problem of Process: How Does Conservation Law Arise? 32
Public Participation 33
The Problem of Application: How Does Conservation Law Work? 33
Two Case Histories: NEPA and the ESA 33
The Natural Communities Conservation Planning Program 40
Private Property and Conservation Law: The Growing Role of Conservation Easements 40
Criticisms of the Endangered Species Act 41
The Problem of Global Cooperation: How Can We Make and Enforce International Conservation Laws and Treaties? 42
General Principles 42
International Protection of Migratory Species 45
International Protection of Endangered Species: The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora of 1973 (CITES) 46
International Protection of Habitats and Ecosystems 47
Protection of Commercially Valuable Species: International Conservation Laws of the Seas 47
Other International Conservation Treaties and Conventions: Patterns and Principles 48
The Rio Summit 48
The Problem of Interdependence: How Does One Nation Promote Global Conservation Without Negative Effects on Other Nations? 49
Case History I: Tuna and Dolphins 49
Case History II: Shrimp and Sea Turtles 50
Legal Challenges to U.S. Conservation Efforts 50
Synthesis 52
Law, Policy, and Science—A Directed Discussion 52CHAPTER 3Values and Ethics in Conservation 56
What Does Science Have to Do with Values? 56
The Problem of Categories: How Do We Classify Different Kinds of Conservation Values? 58
Instrumental Values 58
Determining Attitudes with Sociological Surveys 60
Tools of Economic Valuation: Cost-Benefit Analysis, Safe Minimum Standard Criteria, and Contingency Valuation Analysis 61
Contingent Valuation Analysis 62
Criticisms of WTP and WTA 63
The Problem of Moral Dimension: How Do We Approach Intrinsic Values in Conservation? 64
The Search for Intrinsic Value 64
Ecocentrism as a Basis for the Intrinsic Value of Species 65
Intrinsic Value in the Judeo-Christian Tradition 66
Global Contributions to Understanding Intrinsic Value: Conservation Ethics and Other Religious Traditions 69
Other Western Religious Traditions—Islam 69
Eastern Religious Traditions and Conservation—Hinduism and Buddhism 69
Convergence Theory: Are Conservation Values Moving Toward a Unified System of Policies, Values, and Ethics? 71
The Problem of Practice: Do Conservation Values Require Conservation Virtues? 73
From Environmental Values to Ecological Virtues: Categories of Conservation Ethics 74
Conservation Virtues 75
Synthesis 76
Values and Benefits—A Directed Discussion 76CHAPTER 4Biodiversity: Concept, Measurement, and Challenge 80
Biodiversity and Conservation Biology 80
The Problem of Concept and Quantity: How Do We Know What Biodiversity Is and How Do We Measure It? 81
A Conceptual Definition of Biodiversity 81
Biodiversity and Definition of Species 81
Measuring Biodiversity 84
Problems of Diversity Indices and Alternative Measures 87
The Problem of Value: Why Should We Care About Biodiversity? 90
Ecocentric Values of Biodiversity 90
Instrumental Values of Biodiversity 90
Noninstrumental Values of Biodiversity 90
Moral Values of Biodiversity 91
Religious Traditions and the Value of Biodiversity 92
The Problem of Process and Pattern: What Factors and Theories Explain Variation in Local Biodiversity? 93
Ecological Processes 93
How Much Biodiversity Is There? 97
Biodiversity and Rarity 98
The Problem of Endemism 100
The Problem of Dispersion: Where Is Biodiversity Located? 102
Global Patterns of Biodiversity 102
Recent Measurements of Biodiversity: How Can We Identify Hot Spots with Incomplete Information? 103
The Problem of Application: How Do We Preserve and Manage Biodiversity? 104
How Can Managers Index and Preserve On-Site Biodiversity? 104
Management Approaches to Biodiversity at Landscape Levels 107
Synthesis 108
Biodiversity and Wilderness—A Directed Discussion 109CHAPTER 5The Historic and Foundational Paradigms of Conservation Biology 113
Why Paradigms Matter 113
Problems of Genetic Diversity 114
Conservation Genetics and the Rise of Conservation Biology: Historic Connections 114
Molecular Genetics and the Assessment of Variation 114
Theoretical Population Genetics as a Basis for Conservation Ethics 115
Effective Population Size and the Small Population Paradigm 115
Minimum Viable Populations and Population Viability Analysis 118
The Theory of Island Biogeography 120
Foundational Concepts of Island Biogeography Theory 120
Predictions of Island Biogeography Theory 121
Applications of Island Biogeography 122
Disaffection with Island Biogeography Theory in Conservation 123
Theories of Metapopulation Biology 124
Origins and Development of Metapopulation Theory 124
Refinements of Metapopulation Theory 128
A Metapopulation Case History: The Florida Scrub Jay 131
Metapopulation Genetics 131
Habitat Implications of Metapopulation Theory: Theories of Habitat Heterogeneity 134
The Nonequilibrium Paradigm in Ecology and Conservation 136
Endogenous Disturbances 137
Exogenous Disturbances 138
Synthesis 139
Minimum Population Sizes—A Directed Discussion 139PART TWOConceptsCHAPTER 6The Conservation of Genetic Diversity 147
The Genetics of Small Populations 147
Bottlenecks and Genetic Drift 147
Genetic Drift and Effective Population Size 148
Bottlenecks, Small Populations, and Rare Alleles 149
Inbreeding Depression 150
Mutational Meltdown 153
Hybridization and Introgression—A Liability in Endangered Animal Populations 154
Hybridization in Plants—Conservation Threat or Conservation Asset? 155
Outbreeding Depression, Self, and Intrinsic Coadaption 156
Genetic Techniques: Solving the Problem of Assessing Genetic Status and Change 157
Allozyme Electrophoresis: Genetic Variation at Molecular Levels 158
The Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR): A Noninvasive Method for Genotyping Endangered Species 158
Random Amplified Polymorphic DNA (RAPD) Analysis 158
PCR and RAPD as Tools of Taxonomic Assessment 159
DNA Fingerprinting: The Use of Satellite Markers 160
Mitochondrial DNA 161
Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLP): A Technique for Assessment of Genetic Variation Among Individuals 163
The Problem of Measurement: How Do We Determine Genetic Characteristics of Individuals and Populations? 164
How Do We Measure Genetic Diversity? 164
How Do We Measure Inbreeding and Genetic Drift in Small Populations? 164
Captive Breeding and Population Subdivision 165
The Problem of Application: How Do We Use Genetic Information and Techniques in Conservation? 166
Genetics Can Clarify Relatedness, Taxonomy, and Phylogeny 166
Genetic Techniques Can Determine Rates of Gene Flow Among Populations 166
Genetic Techniques Can Estimate the Time Since Past Population Bottlenecks 167
Genetic Techniques Can Determine Patterns of Reproductive Ecology 168
Captive Breeding: Using Genetic Techniques to Recover Genetic Diversity and Population Size 168
Synthesis 169
Empirical Evidence that Inbreeding Causes Extinction—A Directed Discussion 170CHAPTER 7The Conservation of Populations 174
Defining Populations 174
Why Do Populations Decline? 175
Population Demography 175
Stochastic Perturbations 177
Population Viability Analysis 180
VORTEX: A Model Used in Population Viability Analysis 181
Decision Analysis in Managing Small Populations 183
PVA, MVP, and the Analysis of Risk 183
The Problem of PVA Application: How Do We Use and Interpret Population Viability Analyses? 184
Minimum Viable Populations 186
The Lord Howe Island Woodhen: A Case Study in Managing Multiple Threats to a Small and Declining Population 186
The Problem of Nonindigenous Species: How Do We Manage an Invasive Population 188
Characteristics of Successful Invading Species 189
The Problem of Prediction: Can We Construct Models of Invasive Patterns to Understand the Invasive Process? 190
The Problem of Practical Response: How Do We Prevent or Control Invasions by Nonindigenous Species? 191
The Problem of Metapopulations: How Do We Manage Populations of Spatially Disjunct Subunits? 193
Empirical Studies of Metapopulations 193
Metapopulations, Landscape Features, and Disease 194
Practical Steps in Making Management Decisions: A Conceptual Framework 194
Synthesis 197
Predicting the Success of Invasive Species—A Directed Discussion 197CHAPTER 8The Conservation of Habitat and Landscape 201
The Definition, Concept, and Importance of Habitat 201
Habitat Preservation and Conservation: Basic Principles 202
Determining Species’ Preferred Habitats 202
The Complexities of Habitat: Heterogeneity and Patch Dynamics 204
Habitat Heterogeneity and Patchiness 204
Habitats and Landscapes: Understanding Scales of Time, Space, and Intensity 204
Managing Succession 206
The Problems of Habitat Loss, Isolation, and Fragmentation 207
Overview: Understanding the Problem 207
Characteristics of Edge Environments 211
Effects of Habitat Fragmentation on Population and Community Processes 212
Field and Experimental Studies of Habitat Fragmentation 212
Application Problems in Habitat Conservation: How Do We Integrate Habitat Structure with Reserve Design? 213
The Problem of Function: What Is a Reserve For? 213
Some Methodologies for Reserve Design 214
Determining Appropriate Reserve Size 215
Connecting Isolated Reserves and Fragmented Habitats with Corridors 216
Management of Habitat on Nonreserve Lands: Biodiversity and Multiple Use 222
Mitigating Habitat Disturbance on Nonreserve Lands 222
Preserving Habitat Through Landscape Planning: The Multiple-Use Module 224
Potential Problems of the MUM Concept: An Assessment 224
Synthesis 226
Advantages and Disadvantages of Conservation Corridors—A Directed Discussion 226CHAPTER 9The Conservation of Aquatic Systems 230
Heterogeneity in Aquatic Environments 230
Heterogeneity in Marine Habitats 231
Heterogeneity in Lotic Systems 232
Heterogeneity in Lentic Systems 233
Wetlands 234
Conservation Challenges of Freshwater Habitats 234
Eutrophication 235
Acidification 235
Habitat Alteration by Nonindigenous Species 235
Management of Freshwater Habitats for Conservation 239
Managing Chemical and Physical Inputs to Aquatic Systems 239
Managing Biological Inputs to Aquatic Systems—Dealing with Invasive Species 241
Legislation and Management for Freshwater Environments 243
Setting Priorities for Conservation in Freshwater Aquatic Habitats 247
Marine Habitats and Biodiversity 248
Coral Reefs 249
Marine Benthic Habitats 249
Communities Associated with Hydrothermal Vents 249
Conservation Challenges of Marine Habitats 250
Causes of Marine Habitat Degradation 250
Marine reserves: Management Context, Goals, and Strategies 255
Ecosystem-Level Protection: Australia's Great Barrier Reef Marine Park 257
Tourist-Recreation Marine Reserves: The Bonaire Marine Park 257
Marine Protected Areas and Commercial Fisheries 259
Mariculture—The Case History of the Giant Clam 260
Multiple and Conflicting Jurisdictions over Marine Resources 263
Synthesis 264
Managing Commercial Fisheries Through Marine Reserves—A Directed Discussion 264CHAPTER 10Ecosystem Management 268
The Concept of Ecosystem Management 268
Development of the Ecosystem Management Paradigm 270
Characteristics of the Ecosystem Management Paradigm 271
Values in Ecosystem Management 275
The Scientific Basis of Ecosystem Management 277
The Problem of Definition—What Is an Ecosystem? 277
The Problem of Information—What Data Should Be Collected and Interpreted for Ecosystem Management? 277
Using Natural Processes in Ecosystem Management 283
Implementing Ecosystem Management 289
Ecosystem Modeling 290
Managing Landscape Processes 294
Identifying Functional Ecosystems as Management Units for Conservation 295
Obstacles to Implementing Ecosystem Management? 295
Why Ecosystem Management Matters in Species Management: The Case of the Northern Spotted Owl 297
PART THREEApplicationsCHAPTER 11Restoration Ecology 307
Definition and Development 307
The Concept of Restoration 307
The Legal Foundations of Restoration: U.S. Examples 309
Types of Restoration and Criteria for Evaluation 310
A Generalized Model of Habitat Degradation 311
Protocols, Procedures, and Examples of Effective Ecological Restoration 313
Restoring Terrestrial Systems 313
Restoring Aquatic Ecosystems 321
Genetic and Population Considerations in Restoration Ecology 326
Genetic Match and Genetic Diversity in Reintroduced Populations 327
Trend Analysis: A General Approach to Population Restoration 327
The Gray Wolf: A Case History of Natural Population Restoration 330
Biocultural Restoration 332
A Case History of Ecological Restoration: Restoring the Florida Everglades 335
Synthesis 338
Conflicts and Controversies of Biocultural Restoration—A Directed Discussion 339CHAPTER 12Conservation, Economics, and Sustainable Development 342
Human Population Growth—A Recent History 343
Economics and the Environment 344
Development of Neoclassical Economics 344
Problems of Neoclassical Economics 346
Market-Based Solutions to Economic–Conservation Conflicts 350
Managing "Hummingbird" Economies 350
Averting the Tragedy of the Commons: Historical and Contemporary Examples 351
Private Property, Market Incentives, and Conservation—Current Conflicts and Proposed Solutions 352
Environmental Economics 352
Characteristics of Environmental Economics 354
Methods for Valuing Environmental Goods and Services 356
A Case History of Place and Method—Using Travel Cost Analysis to Estimate the Value of a Costa Rican National Park 358
Steady-State Economics 360
Foundational Concepts 360
The Steady-State Economy and the Environment 361
Ethical Implications of Steady-State Economics 362
Sustainable Development 363
Definition and Characteristics 363
Sustainable Development and Social Traps 363
The Problem of Policy: What Government Strategies Encourage Sustainable Development? 365
Industrial Patterns of Sustainable Development 366
Synthesis 366
Distinctions of Sustainability and Why They Matter—A Directed Discussion 367CHAPTER 13Professional Effectiveness and Future Directions in Conservation Biology 369
People as Agents of Conservation—The Things Textbooks Never Tell You 369
Conservation Biology as Vocation: Beginning an Effective Career 369
Articulating Your Personal Mission and Purpose in Conservation 369
Pursuing Your Mission Through Education: Defining Your Core Curriculum 370
Making the Transition from Student to Colleague: The Nature and Necessity of Interpersonal Skills 370
Building a Professional Network of Contacts and References 373
Conservation as a Social Process: Involvement in Professional Societies 375
Building Research and Vocational Experience 377
Independent Evaluation Criteria for Employment and Graduate School— Grades, Recommendations, and the Graduate Record Exam 378
Graduate Studies in Conservation Biology 378
Choosing a Vocational Setting 380
After You Take the Job 381
Emerging Trends in Conservation Biology—The Necessity and Risk of Predicting the Future 382
Trend One: An Increasing Confluence of the Small-Population Paradigm and the Declining- Population Paradigm in Addressing Species Management 382
Trend Two: A Growing Need to Assess and Manage Multiple Human Interests, Values, and Relationships at Landscape and Ecosystem Scales to Achieve Meaningful Conservation Goals 383
Trend Three: The Need for More Coordinated Relationships Between Government Conservation Regulations and Market-Driven Conservation Incentives 385
Trend Four: Increased Tension and Debate in Defining Conservation Biology as Information-Driven Versus Mission-Driven 387
Synthesis 389
What Kinds of Research Should Conservation Biologists Do?—A Directed Discussion 390Glossary 393
Credits 399
Index 401
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2003 McGraw-Hill Higher Education