Chapter Summary

Social stratification depends upon, but is not the same thing as, social differentiation—the process by which a society becomes increasingly specialized over time.

• Open and Closed Systems.  Where people can change their status with relative ease, sociologists refer to the arrangement as an open system. A closed system is one in which people have great difficulty in changing their status.

• Dimensions of Stratification.  
  Sociologists typically take a multidimensional view of stratification, identifying three components: economic standing (wealth and income), prestige, and power.

Inequality follows relatively consistent and stable patterns that persist through time. We often refer to advantaged and disadvantaged groups in the United States as the upper class, middle class, and lower class.

• Is There Inequality in American Society?  Since the early 1970s income inequality in the United States has been increasing and is now at its highest level in 50 years. In 1999 the top 20 percent of the population received nearly half of the income. Inequality in wealth is even greater.

• Identifying Social Classes.  Three primary methods are employed by sociologists for identifying social classes: the objective method, the self-placement method, and the reputational method.

• The Significance of Social Classes.  
  Social class largely determines people's life chances and style of life and influences patterns of behavior, including voting and sexual behavior.

• Poverty in the United States.  
  Children and the elderly account for nearly half of all Americans living in poverty. Three theories predominate regarding poverty: the culture of poverty theory, poverty as situational, and poverty as a structural feature of capitalist societies.

In many societies individuals or groups can move from one level (stratum) to another in the stratification system, a process called social mobility.

• Forms of Social Mobility.  Social mobility takes a number of forms. It may be vertical or horizontal and intergenerational or intragenerational. When sociologists talk about social mobility, they usually mean intergenerational occupational mobility.

• Social Mobility and Status Attainment.
  More Americans are upwardly mobile than downwardly mobile across generations. Sociologists study the course of an individual's occupational status over the life cycle by looking at the socioeconomic life cycle. Education has the greatest influence on occupational attainment for white men. The processes of status attainment are different for women and blacks than for white males. Critics of status attainment research contend that it has a functionalist bias and that the dual labor market operates to sort people into core or periphery sector jobs.

• What Is Happening to the American Dream?  Controversy surrounds the issue of whether the American middle class is an endangered species. Although "equal opportunity" does not apply to all Americans, depending on race, gender, and ethnicity, in real dollars most Americans are better off than their parents.

The question of why social inequality and division should characterize the human condition has provided a central focus of sociology.

• The Functionalist Theory of Stratification.  The functionalist theory of social inequality holds that stratification exists because it is beneficial for society. Society must concern itself with human motivation because the duties associated with the various statuses are not all equally pleasant to the human organism, important to social survival, and in need of the same abilities and talents.

• The Conflict Theory of Stratification.  The conflict theory of social inequality holds that stratification exists because it benefits individuals and groups who have the power to dominate and exploit others. Marx contended that the capitalist drive to realize surplus value is the foundation of modern class struggle.

• A Synthesis of Perspectives.  Both functionalist and conflict theories have merit, but each is better than the other in answering different questions. A number of sociologists, including Gerhard E. Lenski, have looked for ways of integrating the two perspectives.