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theory: Coherent set of related concepts that seeks to organize and / data. |
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hypotheses: Possible for phenomena, used to predict the outcome of research. |
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mechanistic model: Model, based on the machine as a metaphor, that views development as a passive, predictable response to internal and external , focuses on quantitative development, and studies phenomena by analyzing the operation of their component parts. |
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organismic model: Model that views development as internally initiated by an active person or organism, and as occurring in a universal sequence or qualitatively stages of maturation. |
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perspective: View of development concerned with unconscious forces motivating behavior. |
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psychosexual development: In Freudian theory, an unvarying sequence of stages of personality development during infancy, childhood, and adolescence, regarding of the genitals. |
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id: In Freudian theory, the instinctual aspect of personality (present at birth) that operates on the principle, seeking immediate gratification. |
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ego: In Freudian theory, an aspect of personality that develops during infancy and operates on the principle, seeking acceptable means of gratification in dealing with the real world. |
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superego: In Freudian theory, the aspect of personality that represents socially-approved values; it develops around the age of 5 or 6 as a result of with the parent of the same sex. |
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psychosocial development: In 's theory, the socially and culturally influenced process of development of the ego, or self; it consists of eight maturationally determined stages throughout the life span, each revolving around a particular crisis or turning point in which the person is faced with achieving a healthy balance between alternative positive and negative traits. |
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trust vs. mistrust: The virtue of develops during this stage of Erikson's developmental theory. |
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learning perspective: View of development concerned with changes in behavior that result from experience, or to the environment; the two major branches are behaviorism and social-learning theory. |
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learning: Long-term change in behavior that occurs as a result of . |
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behaviorism: Learning theory that emphasizes the study of observable behaviors and events and the role of environment in causing behavior. |
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classical conditioning: Kind of in which a previously neutral stimulus (one that does not originally elicit a particular response) acquires the power to elicit the response after the stimulus is repeatedly associated with another stimulus that ordinarily does elicit the response. |
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operant conditioning: Kind of learning in which a person tends to repeat a behavior that has been or to cease a behavior that has been punished. |
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reinforcement: In operant conditioning, a stimulus experienced following a behavior, which the probability that the behavior will be repeated. |
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punishment: In operant conditioning, a stimulus experienced following a behavior, which the probability that the behavior will be repeated. |
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social-learning theory: Theory, proposed by Bandura, that behaviors are learned by observing and imitating . Also called social-cognitive theory. |
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learning: In social-learning theory, learning that occurs through watching the behavior of others. |
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perspective: View of development concerned with thought processes and the behavior that reflects those processes. |
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organization: In Piaget's terminology, integration of knowledge into a to make sense of the environment. |
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: In Piaget's terminology, basic cognitive structures consisting of organized patterns of behavior used in different kinds of situations. |
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adaptation: In Piaget's terminology, adjustment to new information about the environment through the processes of assimilation and accommodation. |
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: In Piaget's terminology, incorporation of new information into an existing cognitive structure. |
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: In Piaget's terminology, changes in an existing cognitive structure to include new information. |
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: In Piaget's terminology, the tendency to strive for equilibrium (balance) among cognitive elements within the organism and between it and the outside world. |
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-processing approach: Approach to the study of cognitive development by observing and analyzing the mental processes involved in perceiving and handling . |
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ethological perspective: View of development that focuses on the biological and bases of behavior. |
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contextual perspective: View of development that sees the individual as inseparable from the context. |
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sociocultural theory: 's theory that analyzes how specific cultural practices, particularly social interaction with adults, affect children's development. |
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zone of development (abbreviated ): Vygotsky's term for the level at which children can almost perform a task on their own and, with appropriate teaching, can perform it. |
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Bronfenbrenner's term for a setting in which a child interacts with others on an everyday, face-to-face basis . |
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scientific method: System of established principles and processes of scientific inquiry, including identification of a problem to be studied, formulation and testing of alternative , collection and analysis of data, and public dissemination of findings so that other scientists can check, learn from, analyze, repeat, and build on the results. |
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sample: Group of participants chosen to the entire population under study. |
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random selection: Sampling method that ensures representativeness because each member of the has an equal and independent chance to be selected. |
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observation: Research method in which behavior is studied in settings without the observer's intervention or manipulation. |
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observation: Research method in which the behavior of all participants is noted and recorded in the same situation, under controlled conditions. |
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observer : Tendency of an observer to misinterpret or distort data to fit his or her expectations. |
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case study: Scientific study covering a single case or life, based on notes taken by observers or on published materials. |
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correlational study: Research design intended to discover whether a statistical relationship between variables exists, either in or in magnitude. |
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experiment: Rigorously controlled, (repeatable) procedure in which the researcher manipulates variables to assess the effect of one on the other. |
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experimental group: In an experiment, the group receiving the treatment under study; any changes in these people are compared with changes in the group. |
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group: In an experiment, a group of people who are similar to the people in the experimental group but who do not receive the treatment whose effects are to be measured; the results obtained with this group are compared with the results obtained with the experimental group. |
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variable: In an experiment, the condition over which the experimenter has direct control. |
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variable: In an experiment, the condition that may or may not change as a result of changes in the variable. |
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assignment: Technique used in assigning members of a study sample to experimental and control groups, in which each member of the sample has an equal chance to be assigned to each group and to receive or not receive the treatment. |
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study: Study design in which data are collected about the same people over a period of time, to assess developmental changes that occur with age. |
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study: Study design in which people of different ages are assessed on one occasion, providing comparative information about different age cohorts. |
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cross-sequential study: Study design that combines sequential and longitudinal techniques by assessing people in a sample more than once. |
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2002 McGraw-Hill Higher Education