Chapter Overview

As a young bride, Margaret Bayard Smith witnessed Jefferson's inauguration in the isolated new capital "city" of Washington, D.C. Smith, who was a supporter of the new president, recognized the event as a milestone in the Republic's history, for it marked the first peaceful transfer of power to an opposition party.

Jefferson in Power

The sparse and rustic capital seemed to mirror Jefferson's political philosophy. A complex individual, Jefferson combined an apparent radicalism with a large dose of political realism. He had a strong faith in the people and believed in limited government. Convinced that agriculture nurtured the values necessary to preserve republicanism, he wanted to keep commerce and urbanization distinctly subordinate in the American economy. He sought the rule of republican simplicity, which for him meant the rule of the Republican party alone.

Jefferson found, however, that he confronted much different problems in power than in opposition. On economic questions he increasingly compromised. In particular, though he slashed military spending, he failed to dismantle Hamilton's economic program, which had been so crucial in the original formation of the Republican party. Jefferson's principles yielded to his more pragmatic actions.

Moreover, in another crucial development, the power of the third branch of the federal government grew through establishing the principle of judicial review — the right of the Supreme Court to interpret the constitution. This was the work of Chief Justice John Marshall, a staunch Federalist appointed by John Adams. The Court, led by Marshall, asserted its right to rule whether any laws passed by Congress and state legislatures, or rulings of state courts, were unconstitutional. The landmark case of Marbury v. Madison (1803) laid out the principle of judicial review.

Jefferson and Western Expansion

Jefferson viewed western expansion as a means to preserve liberty by keeping agriculture and the values of the semi-subsistence economy dominant. When France suddenly offered to sell the entire Louisiana region to the United States, Jefferson leapt at the chance to double the size of the country, even though he doubted that the federal government had the constitutional authority to acquire territory. Once again, as with his economic policies, practical politics prevailed over ideological purity. Jefferson dispatched an expedition under the leadership of Meriwether Lewis and William Clark to explore the new territory, find a route to the Pacific, and strengthen American claims to Oregon.

Whites and Indians on the Frontier

Meanwhile, whites poured across the Appalachian Mountains into the Ohio Valley — first young unmarried men, then families carving farms out of the woods. The rapid clearing of the forest seriously decreased the animal population, heightened floods and erosion, and spread disease. The mass movement into Indian country put stress on the cultural systems of both white and native. One response was a series of emotional frontier revivals marked the beginning of the Second Great Awakening. The revival camp meetings offered social outlets for isolated pioneer families and respite from life's hardships, as well as a chance to hear a message of hope and individual salvation.

White encroachment and fur trade led to cultural disorder for the Indians as well. And like the pioneer settlers, many rallied to a religious movement. The Shawnee leader Tenskwatawa, known as the Prophet, sought to revitalize Indian cultures by limiting contact with whites, rejecting white goods, and preserving tribal lands. His movement, however, proved unable to prevent further land cessions. The Prophet's prestige was soon eclipsed by his brother Tecumseh, who advocated combining the western and southern tribes in a political and military alliance to protect their lands and way of life.

The Second War for American Independence

Increasingly, foreign affairs dominated American politics. When war resumed between Britain and France in 1805, neither power was willing to respect the United States' rights as a neutral nation, and both began to raid American shipping on the high seas and impress American sailors. American grievances were stronger against Britain, which had the more powerful navy. Reluctant to resort to force, Jefferson tried to use peaceful coercion by imposing an embargo on American trade with both countries. Some areas, especially New England, openly flouted the law, and eventually the Republican party had to abandon this policy.

James Madison, Jefferson's successor, came under mounting pressure from younger nationalistic Republicans, known as War Hawks. The War Hawks were indignant over British interference with American shipping and meddling with the western Indians. When renewed efforts at peaceful coercion and negotiation failed, the United States finally declared war on Britain in order to defend American rights and uphold national independence.

Americans proved woefully ill-prepared for war. Efforts to invade Canada failed dismally, the British occupied Washington and burned a number of government buildings, and only Andrew Jackson's victory at New Orleans redeemed American pride. Meanwhile, Tecumseh allied his followers with the British, seeing such an alliance as the western tribes' best chance to safeguard their lands. His death in battle ended his pan-Indian movement. A Federalist stronghold, New England refused to support the war, and the region's opposition culminated in the Hartford Convention of 1814, which rejected calls for disunion but proposed several constitutional amendments to reduce the South's political influence. The proposals were discredited by news soon after that a treaty had been signed, ending the war.

America Turns Inward

Despite many military failures, New England's opposition, and a treaty that ignored the issues, the war produced several long-term consequences. It broke the power of Tecumseh's movement, opening the way for white settlement of the Northwest. It destroyed the Federalist party, which was hurt by its opposition to the war. And it led to a surge of American nationalism.

This postwar nationalism could be seen in the foreign policy of President James Monroe. A treaty with Spain acquired Florida and established the principle of American expansion to the Pacific, while the Monroe Doctrine proclaimed the New World's independence from Europe. Relations with Britain improved dramatically after 1815. Britain's recognition of American sovereignty ended the threat of foreign meddling in American affairs, bringing to a close the quest to secure independence. America, under a new generation of nationalistic leaders, could turn inward toward continental development. Then, unfortunately, the Missouri crisis exposed a deepening sectional rift.