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  1. Abnormal Behavior and Society
    1. Defining Abnormal Behavior
      1. Norm Violation
        1. Norms as rules of "right" and "wrong"
        2. Abnormal behavior as a violation of cultural norms
        3. Limitations include variability of norms and rewarding of conformity
      2. Statistical Rarity
        1. Abnormal behavior as a deviation from the average
        2. Normal behavior as falling within the average
        3. Diagnosing mental retardation using statistics
        4. Limitations include a lack of values
        5. Not all rarities should be identified as abnormal
      3. Personal Discomfort
        1. Abnormality as distressing thoughts or behaviors
        2. People are their own judges of their own normality
        3. Limitations include no standard for evaluating the behavior itself, and individuals may still need help if behavior is not harmful
      4. Maladaptive Behavior
        1. Abnormality exists if behavior pattern prevents the demands of life from being met
        2. Related to norm violation
        3. Focuses on behavior relative to life circumstances
      5. Combined Standard
        1. Should standard of abnormality be based on facts or values?
        2. Both facts and values are used
        3. Most societies identify the same categories of abnormal behavior, such as harmful behavior, poor reality contact, inappropriate emotional reactions, and erratic behavior
    2. Relating Abnormal Behavior to Groups
      1. Cultural and Ethnic Group Differences
        1. Psychological disorders affect different cultures at different rates
        2. Psychological disorders are experienced and managed differently among different cultures
        3. Cultures have differing idioms of distress--ways that illness is signified
        4. Diagnosis should take into account individual's cultural background
      2. Gender Differences
        1. Gender affects the expression of psychological disorders
        2. Gender affects susceptibility to psychological disorders
        3. Diagnosis should take into account individual's gender
    3. Explaining Abnormal Behavior
      1. Medical Model
        1. The medical model argues that abnormal behavior is comparable to disease
        2. Each abnormal behavior has causes and set of symptoms
        3. Abnormal behavior is biogenic
        4. Long history of biogenic theories of abnormal behavior
        5. Biogenic theories supported by early discoveries of brain pathologies
        6. Conceptualization of abnormal behavior influenced by medical model
        7. Criticisms of model include labeling effects
        8. Biological perspective focuses on physical components of abnormal behavior but does not necessarily argue that all abnormal behavior is merely symptomatic of biological abnormalities
      2. Multiperspective Approach
        1. Psychological theories attribute abnormal behavior to psychological process from interaction between person and environment
        2. Psychodynamic, behavioral, cognitive, humanistic-existential, interpersonal, and sociocultural perspectives are examples of psychological theories
    4. Treating Abnormal Behavior
      1. Nature of society affects the treatment of abnormal behavior
      2. Way in which abnormal behavior is defined influences its treatment
      3. Suspected causes of abnormal behavior influences its treatment
    5. Preventing Abnormal Behavior
      1. Keeping disorders from becoming disorders in the first place
      2. Primary and secondary preventions as well as a "tertiary" level of prevention
      3. The art of prevention science: reducing risks and strengthening resilience to illness or disease
  2. Conceptions of Abnormal Behavior: A Short History
    1. Ancient Societies: Deviance and the Supernatural
      1. Belief in supernatural forces influenced treatment such as exorcism
      2. Undramatic treatments were probably common in ancient societies
    2. The Greeks and the Rise of Science
      1. Evolution of naturalistic approach to abnormal behavior
      2. Hippocrates suggested all illness as due to natural causes
        1. Importance of observing cases of abnormal behavior
        2. Developed first biogenic theory suggesting abnormalities of humors
        3. Developed one of the first classification systems
      3. Plato argued that care of mentally ill was a family responsibility and influenced the treatment located in retreats
    3. The Middle Ages and the Renaissance: Natural and Supernatural
      1. Medieval Theory and Treatment
        1. Abnormal behavior thought to be caused by supernatural forces
        2. Treatment reflects belief in the supernatural
        3. Many cases were seen as caused by intervening factors of physical or emotional mishaps
      2. The Witch Hunts
        1. The stage was set to perceive anyone behaving strangely as a witch
        2. Papal bull declaring church's intention of seeking and punishing witches
      3. Renaissance Theory and Treatment
        1. Accusations of witchcraft were often used for political and economic reasons
        2. Many of those alleged to be witches were psychologically disturbed
        3. Many were institutionalized or cared for at homes
    4. The Eighteenth Century and After: The Asylums
      1. Early Mental Asylums
        1. Hospitalizing mentally ill is an old idea
        2. Public hospitals became "madhouses"
        3. Conditions of mental hospitals, such Bethlehem Hospital in London, were often terrible
        4. Bedlam reported in many asylums was due to violent patients
      2. Reform of the Asylums
        1. Pussin, superintendent at La Bicête in Paris, established new rules that were later extended by Pinel
        2. Tuke attempted similar reforms in England
        3. New approach to treatment known as moral therapy designed to treat patients like human beings
      3. Reform Movement in America
        1. Rush is known as the "father of American psychiatry"
        2. Rush moved the treatment of mentally disturbed toward human therapy
        3. Dix traveled country and became an advocate calling for humane treatment of mentally ill in appropriate facilities
      4. Hospitalization and the Decline of Moral Therapy
        1. Lack of enough advocates of moral therapy to staff growing number of mental hospitals
        2. Prejudice against Irish Catholics by Protestant-staffed mental hospitals reduced likelihood of using moral therapy
        3. Medical model directed efforts toward biological treatment
        4. Custodial care was replacing moral therapy
        5. Prefrontal lobotomy used on patients considered uncontrollable
      5. Exodus from the Hospitals
        1. Deinstitutionalization movement led to many individuals being discharged
        2. Cost of care and development of phenothiazines contributed to deinstitutionalization movement
        3. Community Mental Health Centers Act (1963) led to different types of care--outpatient,inpatient
        4. Different types of programs were available, such as day hospital and night hospital
        5. Halfway houses were developed to help patients with readjustment to community life
        6. Insufficient funds have led to inadequate and nonexistent services; some patients are homeless
        7. "Revolving door syndrome" results from a lack of services
    5. Foundations of Modern Abnormal Psychology
      1. Experimental Study of Abnormal Psychology
        1. Methods developed by Wundt were applied to the study of abnormal behavior
        2. Emil Kraepelin studied psychopathology in his laboratory
      2. Kraepelin and the Biogenic Theory
        1. Kraepelin developed classification system based on biogenic perspective
        2. Syndrome is a distinct cluster of symptoms and is used in classification
        3. Neurological research made significant progress in linking syndromes with brain pathologies such as general paresis
        4. Psychogenic theory suggests that psychological disturbances are due primarily to stress and not organic dysfunction
      3. Franz Anton Mesmer and Hypnosis
        1. Mesmer applied knowledge of magnetism and electricity to study of mental states
        2. Mesmer believed that "animal magnetism" could treat hysteria
        3. Success was actually due to the power of suggestion
        4. Hypnosis was originally known as "mesmerism"
      4. The Nancy School
        1. Liebeault and Bernheim used hypnosis as treatment
        2. Argued that glove anesthesia was a form of hysteria caused by self-hypnosis
        3. The Nancy school suggested that mental disorders were caused by psychological factors
        4. Charcot criticized the Nancy school
      5. Josef Breuer and Sigmund Freud: The Beginnings of Psychoanalysis
        1. Breuer, in treating Anne O., found the talking cure to be useful
        2. Freud and Breuer argued that disorders were due to unconscious conflicts and were to be drawn out under hypnosis
        3. Free association was used to examine unconscious conflicts
        4. This form of therapy is called psychoanalysis and has had profound influence
    6. Non-Western Approaches to Abnormal Behavior
      1. Africa
        1. Family plays an important role in dealing with disturbed people
        2. Causes of abnormal behavior often linked to individual's relationship with spirit world
        3. Many principles common in the West are used, such as the goal of insight
      2. Asia
        1. Religion emphasizes self-awareness through meditation
        2. Meditation is used to treat variety of psychological problems
        3. Naikan therapy suggests that psychological problems are due to self-centeredness; self-observation is taught as a treatment
        4. Morita therapy used to treat anxiety disorders to clear one's mind of perfectionism and to once again want practical activity
  3. Multiperspective Approach
    1. Human behavior can be studied scientifically
    2. Most abnormal behavior is the product of both psychological and biological processes
    3. Each human being is unique
    4. A comprehensive view of abnormal behavior is accomplished by examining different perspectives





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