Chapter Overview

Learning Objectives

1. Ground water represents percolation of about 15% of the precipitation falling to the earth, accounts for .61% of the world's water, and is second only to glaciers as a source of freshwater.

2. Porosity is the percentage of a rock's volume comprised of openings and it measures the rock's ability to hold water. Most rocks hold some water in either pores or joints, but porosity is highly variable. Permeability measures the capacity of a rock to transmit fluids. Many porous rocks are permeable, but shale has high porosity and low permeability.

3. Water percolates into the earth as far as porosity exists and saturates the lower portions of the porous intervals (saturated zone). The upper surface of the saturated zone is the water table. Above the water table, porosity is filled by air and water, forming an unsaturated zone (= vadose zone). Water is drawn by capillary action from the saturated zone into the vadose zone. Perched water tables result from local variations in permeability, such as shale lenses in sandstones.

4. Ground water movement reflects Darcy's Law (velocity = permeability x hydraulic gradient; explained in Box 11.1). Water table slope influences ground water velocity: steeper slopes have faster movement.

5. Aquifers are porous and permeable rock bodies through which ground water moves easily. Aquitards have low permeability and/or porosity that prevent ground water movement. Unconfined aquifers have water tables and exhibit rapid ground water movement. Confined aquifers lack water tables and exhibit slow ground water movement.

6. Wells must penetrate a saturated zone to produce ground water. Water tables fluctuate with season. If the water table falls below the bottom of a well, it is dry. Drawdown from pumping wells produces local lowering of the water table. Recharge raises the water table. A cone of depression may form around a well because of drawdown. In artesian wells, water rises above its confined aquifer because the ground water is under pressure because of elevation differences.

7. Springs form where the water table intersects the surface, or structures bring water to the surface. The surface of gaining streams is the water table, while losing streams lie above the water table.

8. Rain can leach surface contaminants and move them into ground water. Human activity produces potential pollution from pesticides, herbicides, fertilizers, heavy metals and toxic compounds, bacteria, viruses and parasites from animal, plant and human waste, acid mine drainage, and radioactive waste (both low level and high level). Gasoline may float on the water table. Some pollutants are naturally occurring. Some filtration and purification can be expected through ground water flow, if it is slow. Heavily pumped wells near coasts can be contaminated by saltwater intrusion.

9. Dropping water tables create problems with supply and subsidence, through compaction. Artificial recharge may offset these problems.

10. Natural ground water is slightly acidic because of dissolved carbon dioxide from the atmosphere or soil gases. Its contact with calcite in limestone causes solution forming caves, sinkholes and karst topography. Calcium and bicarbonate in solution can be precipitated as calcite in the form of stalactites, stalagmites, columns and flowstone.

11. Ground water may also form petrified wood, concretions, geodes (bodies in Figure 11.26 are amygdules), cement sedimentary rocks, and develop alkali soils.

12. Hot springs have ground water warmer than the human body. Heating of the water is by either proximity to a magma chamber, or through the geothermal gradient. Geysers erupt periodically because of constrictions in conduits to the surface allow the temperature of the ground water to rise to vapor, which then condenses as the eruption proceeds. Hot ground water produces deposits of sinter (silica) or travertine (calcite). Geothermal energy is derived from hot ground water through the production of electricity from natural steam. It is also utilized for heating, paper manufacturing, ore processing, food preparation and other non-electric uses

Related Readings

Baldwin, H. L., and C. I. McGuinness. 1963. A Primer on Ground Water. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Geological Survey.

Bouwer, H. 1978. Groundwater Hydrology. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Davis, S. N., and R. J. M. De Wiest. 1966. Hydrogeology. New York: John Wiley and Sons.

Driscoll, F. G. 1986. Groundwater and Wells. 2d ed. St. Paul, MN: Johnson Division.

Fetter, C. W. 1993. Applied Hydrogeology. 3d ed. New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, Inc.

-------. 1993. Contaminant Hydrogeology. New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, Inc.

Freeze, R. A., and J. A. Cherry. 1979. Groundwater. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Heath, R. C. 1983. Basic Ground-water Hydrology. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2220.

-------. 1984. Ground-water Regions of the United States. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2242.

Jennings, J. N. 1983. Karst Landforms. American Scientist 71(6): 578-86.

Keefer, W. R. 1971. The Geologic Story of Yellowstone National Park. U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 1347.

Leopold, L. B. 1974. Water: A Primer. San Francisco: W. H. Freeman and Co.

Leopold, L. B., and W. B. Langbein. 1960. A Primer on Water. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Geological Survey.

Moore, G. W., and G. Nicholas. 1964. Speleology: The Study of Caves. Boston: D. C. Heath.

Palmer, A. N. 1991. Origin and Morphology of Limestone Caves. Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 103, pp. 1-21.

Palmer, C. M. 1992. Principles of Contaminant Hydrogeology. Chelsea, MI: Lewis Publishers, Inc.

Pye, V. I., R. Patrick, and J. Quarles. 1983. Groundwater Contamination in the United States. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania.

Ritter, D. F., R. C. Kochel, and J. R. Miller. 1995. Process Geomorphology. 3d ed. Dubuque, IA: Wm. C. Brown Publishers.

Swenson, H. A., and H. L. Baldwin. 1965. A Primer on Water Quality. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Geological Survey.

Todd, D. K. 1980. Groundwater Hydrology. 2d ed. New York: John Wiley and Sons.

Waller, R. M. 1988. Groundwater and the Rural Homeowner. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Geological Survey General Interest Publication.

Waltham, T. 1975. Caves. New York: Crown Publishers.

Answers to EOC Questions

Following are answers to the End of Chapter Questions for Chapter 11:

Boxed Readings