Adapting to the Environment

1		is a process by which experiences produces a relatively enduring change in an organism’s behavior or capabilities. Our capacity for learning increases our likelihood of surviving and reproducing in our environment. Thus, behaviors that help us to so adapt are said to have . The environment thus shapes behavior through . Over time, through the process of evolution, certain behaviors in a species are likely to be selected because of their aid in survival and reproduction, a process called . There are several types of learning. One of the simplest is , a decrease in the strength of a response to a repeated stimulus.

Classical Conditioning: Associating One Stimulus With Another

2		An organism learns to associate two stimuli, with the result that one of the stimuli comes to produce a response previously produced only by the other one in the learning process called , a phenomenon studied in dogs by . During the period of , a response is being learned. Initially a stimulus known as the stimulus produces a response, the response, without learning. A second stimulus is repeatedly paired with the UCS, after several learning trials the second stimulus is presented by itself, and the animal will then respond in a similar way to the second stimulus as it had originally done to the UCS. This second stimulus is then known as the stimulus, and the response is known as the response. Classically conditioned responses can be eliminated through the use of procedures, during which the CS is presented repeatedly without the UCS also being present. Sometimes, extinguished responses will appear weeks, months, or even years later, a phenomenon called . Another phenomenon of classical conditioning, called , occurs when stimuli similar to the initial CS elicit a CR. Stimulus is the ability to distinguish between stimuli. Finally, a process of pairing a neutral stimulus with an already established CS is known as - conditioning.

Operant Conditioning: Learning Through Consequences

3		While Pavlov was studying classical conditioning, Edward L. Thorndike was formulating his which states that responses that are followed by "satisfying" consequences will become more likely to occur, while those responses followed by "unsatisfying" consequences will become less likely to occur. B. F. Skinner studied conditioning, a type of learning in which behavior is influenced by its consequences. Skinner studied operant conditioning experimentally by designing a special chamber called a . Through his work, Skinner identified several important types of consequences. strengthens a response that precedes it, while weakens a response that precedes it. Skinner identified the ABC’s of operant conditioning, or the , , and . An antecedent condition that signifies that a particular response will now produce a consequence is called a stimulus. Consequences determine how we respond to a stimulus. A response is strengthened by the subsequent presentation of a stimulus in the procedure called . There are two types of positive reinforcers. reinforcers are stimuli that an organism finds reinforcing because they satisfy biological needs, while reinforcers become reinforcers through their association with primary reinforcers. A response is strengthened by the removal or avoidance of an aversive stimulus through . The weakening and eventual disappearance of a response, called operant , occurs because the response is no longer being reinforced. In the procedure called , a response is weakened by the subsequent presentation of a stimulus. In , a response is weakened by the subsequent removal of a stimulus. In general, reinforcement or punishment occurs immediately after a response. Sometimes, people are asked to forego immediate reinforcement to wait for a better, later reinforcement. The ability to do this is called . Operant conditioning can be used to create new responses and sequences of behaviors. is a procedure by which new behaviors or sequences of behaviors are created through reinforcements of successive approximations of the target behavior. creates a sequence of responses by reinforcing each response with the opportunity to perform the next behavior in the sequence. Reinforcement typically occurs on schedules of reinforcement. On a schedule, every response is reinforced, while on schedules, only some responses are reinforced. On schedules, reinforcement is given after a fixed number of responses, while on schedules, reinforcement is given for the first response after a certain amount of time. On a schedule, reinforcement is given after a variable number of responses, while on a schedule, reinforcement is given for the first response after an average amount of time. schedules tend to produce the highest rate of response.

Biology and Learning

4		Pairing a taste with the experience of illness (such as stomach illness, nausea, and vomiting) produces a . Martin Seligman has proposed that humans may be biologically prepared to acquire certain fears, a phenomenon also true of other animals and called . The Brelands discovered that some animals could not be operantly conditioned because they fell back on behaviors that were part of their evolutionary history instead, a phenomenon called .

Cognition and Learning

5		Cognitive processes seem to play important roles in learning. German psychologist Wolfgang Köhler discovered that chimps were able to learn by , the sudden perception of a useful relationship. Psychologist Edward Tolman discovered that rats seem to develop a mental representation or of a maze. Tolman’s experiments also supported the concept of learning, learning that occurs but is not demonstrated until there is an incentive to do so. Robert Rescorla found that animals learn to expect that a UCS will occur after the presentation of a CS, and his model of classical conditioning is known as the model. Humans also learn through which can act as a reinforcer or a punisher.

Observational Learning: When Others Pave The Way

6		helped pioneer the study of observational learning, which is also known as .