Perspectives on Motivation

1		is a process that influences the direction, persistence, and vigor of goal-directed behavior. An inherited characteristic, common to all members of a species, that automatically produces a particular response is called an . According to Hull’s theory, states of internal tension motivate people to behave in ways that return them to . motivation involves external rewards to motivate behavior, while motivation involves performing an activity for its own sake. Abraham Maslow proposed the concept of a , a progression of needs from deficiency needs at the bottom to , the need to fulfill our potential, at the top.

Hunger and Weight Reduction

2		The body’s rate of energy (or caloric) utilization is called . When we eat, digestive enzymes break food down into various nutrients, including , a simple sugar that is the body’s major source of fuel. Several hormones called peptides help to terminate a meal. For example, is released into the bloodstream by the small intestine as food arrives in the stomach, travels to the brain, and stimulates brain receptors. A hormone that decreases appetite is called . Early studies of the brain indicated "hunger-on" and "hunger-off" centers. A proposed "hunger-on" center of the brain is called the . A proposed "hunger-off" center is called the hypothalamus. However, later research did not support the early ideas. A cluster of neurons that are packed with receptor sites for various transmitters that stimulate or reduce appetite is called the nucleus. Victims of have an intense fear of being fat and severely restrict their food intake to the point of self-starvation. People who suffer from are also overconcerned about being fat but binge eat and then purge the food.

Sexual Motivation

3		Most of what we know about sexual behavior comes from research. A four-stage pattern of sexual response is called the . The "masculine" sex hormones, or , and the "feminine" sex hormones, or , affect sexual behavior. The , a brain structure, plays a key role in hormone regulation. Hormones have and effects on sexual behavior. refers to impaired sexual behavior. refers to one’s emotional and erotic preference for partners of a particular sex.

The Desire for Affiliation and Intimacy

4		Men and women are attracted to some different characteristics. According to theory, the gender with a greater investment in producing offspring will be more selective in choosing a mate. In contrast, theory proposes that men and women display different mating preferences because they are socialized into different roles. is a deep bond between individuals that may be evolutionarily based.

Achievement Motivation

5		represents the desire to accomplish tasks and attain standards of excellence. A negatively oriented motivation to avoid failure is called of failure. goals focus on the desire to master a task while goals focus on favorable or negative judgments.

Motivation in the Workplace

6		Reflecting Maslow’s humanistic theory, programs attempt to increase work motivation. programs increase motivation by making reinforcement contingent on productivity while programs allow people to set valued, attainable goals.

Motivational Conflict

7		Motivational goals sometimes conflict with each other. An - conflict involves opposition between two attractive alternatives, an - conflict involves a choice between two undesirable alternatives, and an - conflict involves being attracted to and repulsed by the same goal.

The Nature of Emotion

8		are positive or negative affect states consisting of a pattern of cognitive, physiological, and behavioral reactions to events that have relevance to important goals or motives. Emotional responses result from our interpretation or of stimuli. trigger cognitive appraisals and emotional responses. We may be primed for some emotional responses but emotions are also . The cerebral cortex is involved in and the ability to regulate emotions depends upon functions of the . The sends messages along two independent neural pathways causing emotions to have both and aspects. The may function as an early warning system for threat. The right and left may be associated with opposite emotional states. High emotional arousal is associated with the response. We infer other people’s emotions on the basis of their . Evolutionary theorists believe that are wired into the nervous system. indicate social norms about appropriate times and places to display emotion. There is a(n) level of arousal needed to accomplish any given task.

Theories of Emotion

9		According to the - theory of emotion, bodily reactions determine emotions, rather than the other way around. According to the - theory physiology and emotion are independent. The hypothesis states that facial muscles involved in emotional expression send messages to the brain, which then interprets the pattern as an emotion.. Schachter’s theory of emotion states that physiological arousal and cognitive labeling of the arousal produces an emotion. The field of addresses questions relating to happiness, satisfaction and well-being.