Chapter 9 Learning Objectives

• identify the contributions of modern systems theory to sociology;
• understand the general principles of systems theory and define such concepts as entropy, negentropy, morphogenesis, and morphostasis;
• contrast the tenets of Niklas Luhmann's general systems theory to Talcott Parsons's structural-functionalism (e.g., the problems of self-reference and contingency);
• discuss the relationship between systems, environments, complexity, and risk;
• describe the characteristics of autopoietic systems;
• understand the relationships between society and psychic systems (e.g., communication, meaning, and action);
• discuss the problem of double contingency;
• describe Luhmann's theory of evolution and the processes of variation, selection, and the stabilization of reproducible characteristics;
• discuss the different forms of differentiation;
• define and discuss Luhmann's codes;
• identify the problems of functional differentiation;
• discuss Luhmann's sociology of knowledge and its implications for sociological research; and
• discuss criticisms of Luhmann's systems theory.