| motivation | Concerns the conditions responsible for variations in intensity, quality, and direction of ongoing behavior.
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| instinct | Inborn tendency that is thought to direct behavior.
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| need | Internal motivation that is thought to be inborn and universally present in humans.
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| drive | Nonhuman equivalent of motives and needs.
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| behaviorist approach | Approach developed by B. F. Skinner that placed the emphasis for behavior and directed activity on the environment rather than on any internal needs or instincts.
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| Field Theory | Kurt Lewin's approach proposing that various forces in the psychological environment interacted and combined to yield a final course of action.
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| group dynamics | Approach that grew out of the application of Kurt Lewin's field theory to industry.
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| limited rationality | The inability of humans to reason and make decisions in perfectly rational ways.
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| work- life balance | Area of research that investigates whether the satisfaction that one experiences at work is in part affected by the satisfaction that one experiences in nonwork and vice versa, particularly to the extent that one environment has demands that conflict with the other.
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| attitudes | Relatively stable feelings or beliefs that are directed toward specific persons, groups, ideas, jobs, or other objects.
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| Maslow's need theory | Theory that proposed that all humans have a basic set of needs that express themselves over the life span of the individual as internal "pushes" or drives; identified five basic need sets: physiological, security, love or social, esteem, and self-actualization.
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| two-factor theory | Herzberg's theory proposed that there were really two basic needs, not five as suggested by Maslow, and that they were not so much hierarchically arranged as independent of one another.
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| hygiene needs | Lower-level needs described in Herzberg's two-factor theory, which proposed that meeting these needs would eliminate dissatisfaction, but would not result in motivated behavior or a state of positive satisfaction.
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| motivator needs | Higher-level needs described in Herzberg's two-factor theory, which proposed that meeting such needs resulted in the expenditure of effort as well as satisfaction.
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| ERG theory | Alderfer's theory of human needs that proposes that human needs are best thought of as arranged in three levels: existence, relatedness, and growth.
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| reinforcement theory | A theory that proposes that behavior depends on three simple elements: stimulus, response, and reward. If a response in the presence of a particular stimulus is rewarded (i.e., reinforced), that response is likely to occur again in the presence of that stimulus.
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| contingent reward | System in which a reward depends on or is contingent upon a particular response.
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| intermittent reward | System in which only a portion of correct responses are rewarded.
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| continuous reward | System in which a reward is presented every time a correct response occurs.
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| path-goal leadership theory | Leadership theory proposed by House and his colleagues that includes both the characteristics of the subordinate and the characteristics of the situation. It assumes that the leader's responsibility is to show the subordinate the path to valued goals.
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| VIE theory | Motivation theory that assumes individuals will rationally estimate the relative attractiveness and unattractiveness of different rewards or outcomes (valence), the probability that performance will lead to particular outcomes or rewards (instrumentality), and the probability that effort will lead to performance (expectancy).
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| valence | The strength of a person's preference for a particular outcome.
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| instrumentality | The perceived relationship between performance and the attainment of a certain outcome.
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| expectancy | An individual's belief that a particular behavior (e.g., effort, hard work) will lead to a particular outcome (e.g., a promotion).
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| dissonance theory | Festinger's theory that tension exists when individuals hold "dissonant cognitions" (incompatible thoughts). This approach assumes that individuals always seek some sense of "balance" (i.e., absence of tension) and that they will direct their behavior toward reducing the tension resulting from dissonant cognitions.
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| equity theory | Motivational theory developed by Adams suggesting that individuals look at their world in terms of comparative inputs and outcomes. Individuals compare their inputs and outcomes with others (e.g., peers, co-workers) by developing an input/outcome ratio.
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| inputs | The training, effort, skills, and abilities that employees bring to or invest in their work.
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| outcomes | The compensation, satisfaction, and other benefits employees derive from their work.
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| comparison other | Co-workers or other idealized persons to whom the individual compares him or herself in determining perceived equity.
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| input/outcome ratio | Ratio that results when employees compare their inputs and outcomes to those of others (e.g., peers, co-workers) to determine if they are being treated equitably.
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| person-as-intentional approach | Motivational approach that assumes individuals are intentional in their behavior.
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| goal-setting theory | Approach proposed by Locke and colleagues in which the general concept of a goal is adapted to work motivation. A goal is seen as a motivational force, and individuals who set specific, difficult goals perform better than individuals who simply adopt a "do your best" goal or no goal at all.
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| feedback loop | Connection between knowledge of results and the intermediate states that occur between goal commitment and performance.
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| control theory | Theory based on the principle of a feedback loop which assumes that an individual compares a standard to an actual outcome and adjusts behavior to bring the outcome into agreement with the standard.
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| self-regulation | Process by which individuals take in information about behavior, and make adjustments or changes based on that information. These changes, in turn, affect subsequent behavior (e.g., strategies, goal commitment).
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| self-efficacy | The belief in one's capability to perform a specific task or reach a specific goal; also, the belief that one can overcome obstacles and accomplish difficult tasks.
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| action theory (Rubicon theory) | Theory that includes broad consideration of the role of intention in motivated behavior as well as the connection between intention and action.
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| action process | Process that starts with a goal, proceeds to a consideration of events that may occur in the future, then to the development of several alternative plans, the selection of a plan, the execution and monitoring of the chosen plan, and the processing of information resulting from the execution of the plan. The last step, feedback, influences goal development once again.
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| action structure | Structure that includes the notion that (1) observable action is the result of a number of prior events and plans, hierarchically arranged and (2) the feedback and resulting regulation of actions occur at different levels.
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| motivational trait questionnaire (MTQ) | A questionnaire that provides a standardized method of assessing six distinct aspects of general performance motivation.
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| job enrichment | A motivational approach that involves increasing the responsibility and interest level of jobs in order to increase the motivation and job satisfaction of employees performing those jobs.
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| ProMES | The Productivity Measurement and Enhancement System, a motivational approach that utilizes goal setting, rewards, and feedback to increase motivation and performance.
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| indicators | Quantitative measures of how well each objective is being met in the ProMES approach.
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