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ability to participate  The availability of both the interviewer and the respondent to get together in a question-and-answer interchange.
acquiescence error  A specific type of response bias that can occur when the respondent perceives what answer would be the most desirable to the sponsor.
active data  Data acquired by a business when customers interact with the business's Web site.
administrative error  Bias that can stem from data processing mistakes, interviewer distortion of the respondents' answers, or systemic inaccuracies created by using a faulty sampling design.
affect global approach  The theoretical approach of viewing the structure of a person's attitude as nothing more than the overall (global) expression of his or her favorable or unfavorable feeling toward a given object or behavior.
affective component  That part of an attitude which represents the person's feelings toward the given object, idea, or set of information.
alpha factor  The desired or acceptable amount of difference between the expected and the actual population parameter values; also referred to as the tolerance level of error ().
alternative hypothesis  A statement that is the opposite of the null hypothesis, where the difference in reality is not simply due to random error.
ambiguity  Contamination of internal validity measures due to unclear determination of cause-effect relationships between investigated constructs.
analysis of variance (ANOVA)  A statistical technique that determines whether two or more means are statistically different from each other.
anonymity  The assurance that the prospective respondent's name or any identifiable designation will not be associated with his or her responses.
appendix  A section at the end of the final research report used to house complex, detailed, or technical information.
appropriateness of descriptors  The extent to which the scale point elements match the data being sought.
archives  Secondary sources of recorded past behaviors and trends.
area sampling  A form of cluster sampling where clusters are formed by geographic designations such as cities, subdivisions, and blocks. Any geographic unit with boundaries can be used, with one-step or two-step approaches.
assignment  The scaling property that allows the researcher to employ any type of descriptor to identify each object (or response) within a set; this property is also known as description or category.
assignment property  The employment of unique descriptors to identify each object in a set.
attitude  A learned predisposition to react in some consistent positive or negative way to a given object, idea, or set of information.
attitude-toward-behavior model  A multiplicative-additive model approach that attempts to capture a person's attitude toward a behavior rather than to the object itself; where the attitude is a separate, indirectly derived composite measure of a person's combined thoughts and feelings for or against carrying out a specific action or behavior.
attitude-toward-object model  A multiplicative-additive model approach that attempts to capture a person's attitude about a specific object; where the attitude is a separate indirectly derived composite measure of a person's combined thoughts and feelings for or against a given object.
attribute-importance estimate  The importance of an attribute of an object as estimated by conjoint analysis. It is calculated by subtracting the minimum part-worth estimate from the maximum part-worth estimate.
auspices error  A type of response bias that occurs when the response is dictated by the image or opinion of the sponsor rather than the actual question.
automatic replenishment system (ARS)  A continuous, automated inventory control system designed to analyze inventory levels, merchandise order lead times, and forecasted sales.
availability of information  The degree to which the information has already been collected and assembled in some type of recognizable format.
bad questions  Any question or directive that obscures, prevents, or distorts the fundamental communications between respondent and researcher.
balancing positive/negative scale descriptors  The researcher's decision to maintain objectivity in a scale that is designed to capture both positive and negative state-of-mind raw data from respondents; the same number of relative magnitudes of positive and negative scale descriptors are used to make up the set of scale points.
bar code  A pattern of varied-width electronic-sensitive bars and spaces that represents a unique code of numbers and letters.
behavior intention scale  A special type of rating scale designed to capture the likelihood that people will demonstrate some type of predictable behavior toward purchasing an object or service.
believability  The quality achieved by building a final report that is based on clear, logical thinking, precise expression, and accurate presentation.
benefit and lifestyle studies  Studies conducted to examine similarities and differences in needs; used to identify two or more segments within a market for the purpose of identifying customers for the product category of interest to a particular company.
beta coefficient  An estimated regression coefficient that has been recalculated to have a mean of 0 and a standard deviation of 1. This statistic enables the independent variables with different units of measurement to be directly compared on their association with the dependent variable.
bias  A particular tendency or inclination that skews results, thereby preventing accurate consideration of a research question.
bivariate regression analysis  A statistical technique that analyzes the linear relationship between two variables by estimating coefficients for an equation for a straight line. One variable is designated as a dependent variable, and the other as an independent (or predictor) variable.
Boolean operators  Key words that form a logic string to sort through huge numbers of sites on the World Wide Web.
brand awareness  The percentage of respondents having heard of a designated brand; brand awareness can be either unaided or aided.
business ethics  The moral principles and standards that guide behavior in the world of business.
business intelligence  A procedure for collecting daily operational information pertinent to the company and the markets it serves.
buying power index (BPI)  A statistical indicator that provides weighted-average population, retail sales, and effective buying income data on different geographic areas of the United States.
call record sheet  A recording document that gathers basic summary information about an interviewer's performance efficiency (e.g., number of contact attempts, number of completed interviews, length of time of interview).
cardinal numbers  Any set of consecutive whole integers.
causal research  Research that focuses on collecting data structures and information that will allow the decision maker or researcher to model cause-effect relationships between two or more variables under investigation.
census  A study that includes data about or from every member of a target population. Sampling is often used because it is impossible or unreasonable to conduct a census.
central limit theorem (CLT)  The theoretical backbone of sampling theory. It states that the sampling distribution of the sample mean () or the sample proportion ( ) xp value derived from a simple random sample drawn from the target population will be approximately normally distributed provided that the associated sample size is sufficiently large (e.g., when n is greater than or equal to 30). In turn, the sample mean value ( ) of that random x sample with an estimated sampling error (Sg) (estimated standard error) fluctuates around the true population mean value () with a standard error of s/n m and has a sampling distribution that is approximately a standardized normal distribution, regardless of the shape of the probability frequency distribution curve of the overall target population.
cheating  The deliberate falsification of respondents' answers on a survey instrument.
Chi-square (X2) statistic  The standardized measurement of the observed difference squared between two frequency distributions that allows for the investigation of statistical significance in analyzing frequency distribution data structures.
Claris Home Page  A specific software program that can be used to create Web pages that can integrate both text and graphics with other types of computer files.
classification (or prediction) matrix  The classification matrix in discriminant analysis that contains the number of correctly classified and misclassified cases.
cluster analysis  A multivariate interdependence technique whose primary objective is to classify objects into relatively homogeneous groups based on the set of variables considered.
clusters  The mutually exclusive and collectively exhaustive subpopulation groupings that are then randomly sampled.
cluster sampling  A method of probability sampling where the sampling units are selected in groups (or clusters) rather than individually. Once the cluster has been identified, the elements to be sampled are drawn by simple random sampling or all of the units may be included in the sample.
code of ethics  A set of guidelines that states the standards and operating procedures for ethical decisions and practices by researchers.
coding  The activities of grouping and assigning values to various responses from a survey instrument.
coefficient alpha  See Cronbach's alpha.
coefficient of determination (r2)  A statistical value (or number) that measures the proportion of variation in one variable accounted for by another variable; the r2measure can be thought of as a percentage and varies from .00 to 1.00.
cognitive component  That part of an attitude which represents the person's beliefs, perceptions, preferences, experiences, and knowledge about a given object, idea, or set of information.
commercial/syndicated data  Data that have been compiled and displayed according to some standardized procedure.
company ethics program  The framework through which a firm establishes internal codes of ethical behavior to serve as guidelines for doing business.
comparative scale  Scale used when the scaling objective is to have a respondent express an attitude, feeling, or behavior about an object (or person, or phenomenon) or its attributes on the basis of some other object (or person, or phenomenon) or its attributes.
competitive intelligence analysis  Specific procedures for collecting daily operational information pertaining to the competitive companies and markets they serve.
completely automated telephone survey (CATS)  A survey administered by a computer with no human interviewer. The computer dials a telephone number and the respondent listens to the electronic voice, responding by pushing keys on the Touch-Tone telephone pad.
completeness  The depth and breadth of the data.
completion deadline date  Part of the information included in a cover letter that directly communicates to a prospective respondent the date by which his or her completed questionnaire must be returned to the researcher.
complexity of the information  One of the two fundamental dimensions used to determine the level of information being supplied by the information research process; it relates to the degree to which the information is easily understood and applied to the problem or opportunity under investigation.
computer-administered survey  A survey design that incorporates the use of a computer to ask questions and record responses.
computer-assisted personal interviewing  An interview in which the interviewer reads respondents the questions from a computer screen and directly keys in the response.
computer-assisted self-interviewing  An interview in which respondents are directed to a computer where they read questions from the computer screen and directly enter their responses.
computer-assisted telephone interview (CATI)  The computer controls and expedites the interviewing process.
computer-assisted telephone survey  A survey that uses a fully automated system in which the respondent listens to an electronic voice and responds by pushing keys on a Touch-Tone telephone keypad.
computer disks by mail  A survey procedure in which computer disks are mailed to respondents; the respondents complete the survey on their own computer and return the disk to the researcher via the mail.
computer-generated fax survey  A survey procedure in which a computer is used to send a survey to potential respondents via fax; the respondent completes the survey and returns it via fax or mail.
computerized secondary data sources  Data sources designed by specific companies that integrate both internal and external data with online information sources.
conative component  That part of an attitude which refers to the person's behavioral response or specific action/reaction toward the given object, idea, or set of information; it tends to be the observable outcome driven by the interaction of a person's cognitive and affective components toward the object or behavior.
concept and product testing  Information for decisions on product improvements and new product introductions.
confidence interval  A statistical range of values within which the true value of the target population parameter of interest is expected to fall based on a specified confidence level.
confidence levels  Theoretical levels of assurance of the probability that a particular confidence interval will accurately include or measure the true population parameter value. In information research, the three most widely used levels are 90 percent, 95 percent, and 99 percent.
confidentiality to client  The agreement between a researcher and the client that all activities performed in the process of conducting marketing research will remain private and the property of the client, unless otherwise specified by both parties.
confidentiality to respondent  The expressed assurance to the prospective respondent that his or her name, while known to the researcher, will not be divulged to a third party, especially the sponsoring client.
confirmation/invitation letter  A specific follow-up document sent to prospective focus group participants to encourage and reinforce their willingness and commitment to participate in the group session.
conformance to standards  The researcher's ability to be accurate, timely, mistake free, and void of unanticipated delays.
conjoint analysis  A multivariate technique that estimates the utility of the levels of various attributes or features of an object, as well as the relative importance of the attributes themselves.
connectors  Logic phrases and symbols that allow search terms to be linked together in a Boolean logic format.
connect time  The length of time, frequently measured in minutes and seconds, that a user is logged on to an electronic service or database. The amount of connect time is generally used to bill the user for services.
consent forms  Formal signed statements of agreement by the participants approving the taping or recording of the information provided in group discussions and releasing that data to the moderator, researcher, or sponsoring client.
constant sums rating scale  A scale format that requires the respondents to allocate a given number of points, usually 100, among several attributes or features based on their importance to the individual; this format requires a person to value each separate feature relative to all the other listed features.
construct development  An integrative process of activities undertaken by researchers to enhance understanding of what specific data should be collected for solving defined research problems.
construct development error  A type of nonsampling (systematic) error that is created when the researcher is not careful in fully identifying the concepts and constructs to be included in the study.
constructs  Hypothetical variables composed of a set of component responses or behaviors that are thought to be related.
construct validity  The degree to which researchers measure what they intended to measure, and to which the proper identification of the independent and dependent variables were included in the investigation.
consumer panels  Large samples of households that provide certain types of data for an extended period of time.
content analysis  The technique used to study written or taped materials by breaking the data into meaningful aggregate units or categories using a predetermined set of rules.
content validity  That property of a test which indicates that the entire domain of the subject or construct of interest was properly sampled. That is, the identified factors are truly components of the construct of interest.
control group  That portion of the sample which is not subjected to the treatment.
controlled test markets  Test markets performed by an outside research firm that guarantees distribution of the test product through prespecified outlets in selected cities.
control variables  Extraneous variables that the researcher is able to account for according to their systematic variation (or impact) on the functional relationship between the independent and dependent variables included in the experiment.
convenience sampling  A method of nonprobability sampling where the samples are drawn on the basis of the convenience of the researcher or interviewer; also referred to as accidental sampling. Convenience sampling is often used in the early stages of research because it allows a large number of respondents to be interviewed in a short period of time.
convergent validity  The degree to which different measures of the same construct are highly correlated.
cost analysis  An analysis of alternative logistic system designs that a firm can use for achieving its performance objective at the lowest total cost.
covariation  The amount of change in one variable that is consistently related to the change in another variable of interest.
cover letter  A separate letter that either accompanies a self-administered questionnaire or is mailed prior to an initial interviewer contact call and whose main purpose is to secure a respondent's willingness to participate in the research project; sometimes referred to as a letter of introduction.
cover letter guidelines  A specific set of factors that should be included in a cover letter for the purpose of increasing a prospective respondent's willingness to participate in the study.
credibility  The quality that comes about by developing a final report that is accurate, believable, and professionally organized.
critical questions  Questions used by a moderator to direct the group to the critical issues underlying the topics of interest.
critical tolerance level of error  The observed difference between a sample statistic value and the corresponding true or hypothesized population parameter.
critical z value  The book z value and the amount of acceptable variability between the observed sample data results and the prescribed hypothesized true population values measured in standardized degrees of standard errors for given confidence levels.
Cronbach's alpha  A widely used measurement of the internal consistency of a multi-item scale in which the average of all possible split-half coefficients is taken.
cross-tabulation  The process of simultaneously treating (or counting) two or more variables in the study. This process categorizes the number of respondents who have responded to two or more questions consecutively.
curbstoning  Cheating or falsification of data during the collection process that occurs when interviewers fill in all or part of a survey themselves.
curvilinear relationship  An association between two variables whereby the strength and/or direction of their relationship changes over the range of both variables.
customer-centric approach  Use of granular data to anticipate and fulfill customers' desires.
customer interaction  The relationship between the enterprise and the customer.
customer knowledge  The collection of customer interaction information used to create customer profiles that can be used to tailor interactions, segment customers, and build strong customer relationships.
customer knowledge data  Information volunteered by customers that might be outside the marketing function of an organization.
customer relationship management (CRM)  Management of customer relationships based on the integration of customer information throughout the business enterprise in order to achieve maximum customer satisfaction and retention.
customer satisfaction studies  Studies designed to assess both the strengths and weaknesses customers perceive in a firm's marketing mix.
customer-volunteered information  Data provided by the customer without solicitation.
cycle time  The time that elapses between taking a product or service from initial consumer contact to final delivery.
cycle time research  A research method that centers on reducing the time between the initial contact and final delivery (or installation) of products.
data  Facts relating to any issue or subject.
data analysis error  A "family" of nonsampling errors that are created when the researcher subjects the raw data to inappropriate analysis procedures.
database  A collection of secondary information indicating what customers are purchasing, how often they purchase, and how much they purchase.
database technology  The means by which data are transformed into information.
data coding errors  The incorrect assignment of computer codes to the raw responses.
data editing errors  Inaccuracies due to careless verifying procedures of raw data to computer data files.
data enhancement  The process of weaving data into current internal data structures for the purpose of gaining a more valuable categorization of customers relative to their true value to the company.
data entry  The direct inputting of the coded data into some specified software package that will ultimately allow the research analyst to manipulate and transform the raw data into data structures.
data entry errors  The incorrect assignment of computer codes to their predesignated location on the computer data file.
data field  A basic characteristic about a customer that is filled in on a database.
data interaction matrix  A procedure used to itemize the type and amount of data required by each functional area of the company regardless of the cost of data collection.
data mining  The process of finding hidden patterns and relationships among variables/characteristics contained in data stored in the data warehouse.
data processing error  A specific type of nonsampling error that can occur when researchers are not accurate or complete in transferring raw data from respondents to computer files.
data silo  Collection of data by one area of a business that is not shared with other areas.
data structures  The output analysis results of combining a group of reported raw data using some type of quantitative or qualitative analysis procedure.
data validation  A specific control process that the researcher undertakes to ensure that his or her representatives collected the data as required. The process is normally one of recontacting about 20 percent of the selected respondent group to determine that they did participate in the study.
data warehouse  A central repository for all significant pieces of information that an organization collects.
debriefing analysis  The technique of comparing notes, thoughts, and feelings about a focus group discussion between the moderator, researcher, and sponsoring client immediately following the group interview.
decision opportunity  The presence of a situation in which market performance can be significantly improved by undertaking new activities.
decision problem  A situation in which management has established a specific objective to accomplish and there are several courses of action that could be taken, each with its own risks and potential benefits.
defined target population  A specified group of people or objects for which questions can be asked or observations made to develop the required data structures and information; also referred to as the working population. A precise definition of the target population is essential when undertaking a research project.
degree of manipulation  The extent to which data structures and results have been interpreted and applied to a specific situation.
deliberate falsification  When the respondent and/or interviewer intentionally gives wrong answers or deliberately cheats on a survey.
demand analysis  The estimating of the level of customer demand for a given product as well as the underlying reasons for that demand.
demand characteristics  Contamination to construct validity measures created by test subjects trying to guess the true purpose behind the experiment and therefore give socially acceptable responses or behaviors.
demographic characteristics  Physical and factual attributes of people, organizations, or objects.
deontologists  Individuals who emphasize good intentions and the rights of the people involved in an action; they are much less concerned with the results from any ethical decision.
dependence techniques  Appropriate multivariate procedures when one or more of the variables can be identified as dependent variables and the remaining as independent variables.
dependent variable  A singular observable attribute that is the measured outcome derived from manipulating the independent variable(s).
depth  The overall number of key data fields or variables that will make up the data records.
description  The process of discovering patterns, associations, and relationships among key customer characteristics.
descriptive questionnaire design  A questionnaire design that allows the researcher to collect raw data that can be turned into facts about a person or object. The questions and scales primarily involve the collecting of state-of-being and state-of-behavior data.
descriptive research  Research that uses a set of scientific methods and procedures to collect data structures that are used to identify, determine, and describe the existing characteristics of a target population or market structure.
diffusion of treatment  Contamination to construct validity measures due to test subjects discussing the treatment and measurement activities with individuals yet to receive the treatment.
direct cognitive structural analysis  A data analysis procedure in which respondents are simply asked to determine the extent to which an attribute is part of the construct's structural makeup and its importance to construct.
direct (positive) directional hypothesis  A statement about the perceived relationship between two questions, dimensions, or subgroups of attributes that suggests that as one factor moves in one direction, the other factor moves in the same direction.
directed data  Comprehensive data about customers collected through the use of computers.
direct mail survey  A questionnaire distributed to and returned from respondents via the postal service.
directness of observation  The degree to which the researcher or trained observer actually observes the behavior/event as it occurs; also termed direct observation.
direct observation  The process of observing actual behaviors or events and recording them as they occur.
direct self-administered questionnaire  A survey instrument designed to have the respondent serve as both an interviewer and a respondent during the question-and-answer encounter.
discretion of primary descriptors  The carefulness that a researcher must use in selecting the actual words used to distinguish the relative magnitudes associated with each of the primary descriptors in a scale design.
discriminant analysis  Amultivariate technique for analyzing marketing research data when the dependent variable is categorical and the independent variables are interval.
discriminant function  The linear combination of independent variables developed by discriminant analysis which will best discriminate between the categories of the dependent variable.
discriminant function coefficient  The multipliers of variables in the discriminant function when the variables are in the original units of measurement.
discriminant score  In discriminant analysis, this represents the score of each respondent on the discriminant function.
discriminant validity  The degree to which measures of different constructs are uncorrelated.
discriminatory power  The scale's ability to significantly differentiate between the categorical scale responses (or points).
disguised observation  An observation technique in which the test subjects are completely unaware that they are being observed and recorded.
disguised sponsorship  When the true identity of the person or company for which the research is being conducted is not divulged to the prospective respondent.
disproportionate stratified sampling  A form of stratified sampling in which the size of the sample drawn from each stratum is independent of the stratum's proportion of the total population.
distance property  The scaling property that when activated allows the researcher and respondent to identify, understand, and accurately express in a unit measurement scheme the exact (or absolute) difference between each of the descriptors, scale points, or raw responses.
diversity of respondents  The degree to which the respondents in the study share some similarities.
domain of observables  The set of observable manifestations of a variable that is not itself directly observable. A domain represents an identifiable set of components that indirectly make up the construct of interest.
drop-off survey  A questionnaire that is left with the respondent to be completed at a later time. The questionnaire may be picked up by the researcher or returned via some other mode.
dummy variables  Artificial variables introduced into a regression equation to represent the categories of a nominally scaled variable (such as sex or marital status). There will be one dummy variable for each of the nominal categories of the independent variable, and the values will typically be 0 and 1, depending on whether the variable value is present or absent for a particular respondent (e.g., male or female).
editing  The process in which the interviews or survey instruments are checked for mistakes that may have occurred by either the interviewer or the respondent during data collection activities.
effective buying income (EBI)  The measure of personal income less federal, state, and local taxes.
electronic database  A high-speed, computer-assisted information source or library.
electronic data interchange (EDI)  A specific system designed to speed the flow of information as well as products from producer to distributor to retailer.
electronic test markets  Test procedures that integrate the use of selected panels of consumers who use a special identification card in recording their product purchasing data.
element  The name given to the object about which information is sought. Elements must be unique, countable, and, when added together, make up the whole of the target population.
e-mail survey  A survey in which electronic mail is used to deliver a questionnaire to respondents and receive their responses.
empirical testing  The actual collection of data in the real world using research instruments and then subjecting that data to rigorous analysis to either support or refute a hypothesis.
ending questions  Questions used by a focus group moderator to bring closure to a particular topic discussion; encourages summary-type comments.
enterprise  The total business unit, including all facets of the business as well as suppliers and retailers.
environmental forecasting  The projection of environmental occurrences that can affect the long-term strategy of a firm.
environmental information  Secondary information pertaining to a firm's suppliers and/or distributors.
equivalent form  A method of assessing the reliability associated with a scale measurement; the researcher creates two basically similar yet different scale measurements for the given construct and administers both forms to either the same sample of respondents or two samples of respondents from the same target population.
error  The difference between the true score on a research instrument and the actual observed score.
estimated sample standard deviation  A quantitative index of the dispersion of the distribution of drawn sampling units' actual data around the sample's arithmetic average measure of central tendency; this sample statistical value specifies the degree of variation in the raw data responses in a way that allows the researcher to translate the variations into normal curve interpretations.
estimated sample variance  The square of the estimated sample standard deviation.
estimated standard error of the sample statistic  A statistical measurement of the sampling error that can be expected to exist between the drawn sample's statistical values and the actual values of all the sampling units' distributions of those concerned statistics. These indexes are referred to as general precision.
estimates  Sample data facts that are transformed through interpretation procedures to represent inferences about the larger target population.
ethical dilemmas  Specific situations in which the researcher, decision maker, or respondent must choose between appropriate and inappropriate behavior.
ethics  The field of study that tries to determine what behaviors are considered to be appropriate under certain circumstances by established codes of behavior set forth by society.
evaluation apprehension  Contamination to construct validity measures caused by test subjects being fearful that their actions or responses will become known to others.
executive interview  A person-administered interview of a business executive. Frequently, these interviews will take place in the executive's office.
executive summary  The part of the final research report that illustrates the major points of the report in a manner complete enough to provide a true representation of the entire document.
expected completion rate (ECR)  The percentage of prospective respondents who are expected to participate and complete the survey; also referred to as the anticipated response rate.
experience surveys  An informal gathering of opinions and insights from people who are considered to be knowledgeable on the issues surrounding the defined research problem.
experimental design reliability  The degree to which the research design and its procedures can be replicated and achieve similar conclusions about hypothesized relationships.
expert systems  Advanced computer-based systems that function in the same manner as a human expert, advising the analyst on how to solve a problem.
explained variance  In multivariate methods, it is the amount of variation in the dependent construct that can be accounted for by the combination of independent variables.
exploratory research  Research designed to collect and interpret either secondary or primary data in an unstructured format using sometimes an informal set of procedures.
external secondary data  Data collected by outside agencies such as the federal, state, or local government; trade associations; or periodicals.
external validity  The extent to which the measured data results of a study based on a sample can be expected to hold in the entire defined target population. In addition, it is the extent that a causal relationship found in a study can be expected to be true for the entire defined target population.
extraneous variables  All variables other than the independent variables that affect the responses of the test subjects. If left uncontrolled, these variables can have a confounding impact on the dependent variable measures that could weaken or invalidate the results of an experiment.
extremity error  A type of response bias when the clarity of extreme scale points and ambiguity of midrange options encourage extreme responses.
eye tracking monitor  A device that observes and records a person's unconscious eye movements.
facilitating agencies  Businesses that perform a marketing research function as a supplement to a broader marketing research project.
factor analysis  A class of statistical procedures primarily used for data reduction and summarization.
factor loadings  Simple correlations between the variables and the factors.
factor scores  Composite scores estimated for each respondent on the derived factors.
facts  Pieces of information that are observable and verifiable through a number of external sources.
faulty recall  The inability of a person to accurately remember the specifics about the behavior under investigation.
fax survey  A questionnaire distributed to the sample via fax machines.
field experiments  Causal research designs that manipulate the independent variables in order to measure the dependent variable in a natural test setting.
finite correction factor (fcf)  An adjustment factor to the sample size that is made in those situations where the drawn sample is expected to equal 5 percent or more of the defined target population. The fcf is equal to the overall square root of N - n/N - 1.
flowerpot approach  A specific, unique framework or blueprint for integrating different sets of questions and scale measurements into an instrument that is capable of collecting the raw data needed to achieve each of the established information objectives.
focus group facility  A professional facility that offers a set of specially designed rooms for conducting focus group interviews; each room contains a large table and comfortable chairs for up to 13 people, with a relaxed atmosphere, built-in audio equipment, and normally a one-way mirror for disguised observing by the sponsoring client or researcher.
focus group incentives  Specified investment programs to compensate focus group participants for their expenses associated with demonstrating a willingness to be a group member.
focus group moderator  A special person who is well trained in interpersonal communications; listening, observation, and interpretive skills; and professional mannerisms and personality. His or her role in a session is to draw from the participants the best and most innovative ideas about an assigned topic or question.
focus group research  A formalized qualitative data collection method for which data are collected from a small group of people who interactively and spontaneously discuss one particular topic or concept.
follow-up test  A statistical test that flags the means that are statistically different from each other; follow-up tests are performed after an ANOVA determines there are differences between means.
forced-choice scale measurements  Symmetrical scale measurement designs that do not have a logical "neutral" scale descriptor to divide the positive and negative domains of response descriptors.
formal rating procedures  The use of structured survey instruments or questionnaires to gather information on environmental occurrences.
formative composite scale  Scale used when each of the individual scale items measures some part of the whole construct, object, or phenomenon.
F-ratio  The statistical ratio of between-group mean squared variance to within-group mean squared variance; the F value is used as an indicator of the statistical difference between group means in an ANOVA.
free-choice scale measurements  Symmetrical scale measurement designs that are divided into positive and negative domains of scale-point descriptors by a logical center "neutral" response.
frequency distributions  A summary of how many times each possible raw response to a scale question/setup was recorded by the total group of respondents.
F-test  The test used to statistically evaluate the difference between the group means in ANOVA.
full-text  Option of having the entire document, news story, article, or numerical information available for downloading.
fully automated self-interviewing  A procedure in which respondents independently approach a central computer station or kiosk, read the questions, and respond-all without researcher intervention.
fully automated telephone interviewing  A data collection procedure in which the computer calls respondents and asks questions; the respondent records his or her answers by using the keypad of a Touch-Tone telephone.
fully automatic devices  High-tech devices that interact with respondents without the presence of a trained interviewer during the question/response encounter.
functional relationship  An observable and measurable systematic change in one variable as another variable changes.
garbage in, garbage out  A standard phrase used in marketing research to represent situations where the process of collecting, analyzing, and interpreting data into information contains errors or biases, creating less than accurate information.
gatekeeper technology  Any device used to help protect one's privacy against intrusive marketing practices such as telemarketing solicitors, unwanted direct marketers, illegal scam artists, and "sugging" (caller ID, voice messengers, answering machines).
generalizability  The extent to which the data are an accurate portrait of the defined target population; the representativeness of information obtained from a small subgroup of members to that of the entire target population from which the subgroup was selected.
generalizability of data structures  The degree to which sample data results and structures can be used to draw accurate inferences about the defined target population, that is, the extent to which the research can extrapolate results from a sample to the defined target population.
general precision  The amount of general sampling error associated with the given sample of raw data that was generated through some type of data collection activity; no specific concern for any level of confidence.
granular data  Highly detailed, highly personalized data specifically structured around an individual customer.
graphic rating scale descriptors  A scale point format that presents respondents with some type of graphic continuum as the set of possible raw responses to a given question.
group dynamics  The degree of spontaneous interaction among group members during a discussion of a topic.
hits  The number of documents or other items that meet the search terms in an online search.
human observation  Data collection by a researcher or trained observer who records text subjects' actions and behaviors.
hypertext markup language (HTML)  The language used to create Web pages for communicating the research results as well as other information on the Internet.
hypothesis  A yet-unproven proposition or possible solution to a decision problem that can be empirically tested using data that are collected through the research process; it is developed in order to explain phenomena or a relationship between two or more constructs or variables.
hypothesis guessing  Contamination to construct validity measures due to test subjects' believing they know the desired functional relationship prior to the manipulation treatment.
iceberg principle  The general notion indicating that the dangerous part of many marketing decision problems is neither visible nor well understood by marketing managers.
importance-performance analysis  A research and data analysis procedure used to evaluate a firm's and its competitors' strengths and weaknesses, as well as future actions that seek to identify key attributes that drive purchase behavior within a given industry.
inadequate preoperationalization of variables  Contamination to construct validity measures due to inadequate understanding of the complete makeup of the independent and dependent variables included in the experimental design.
inappropriate analysis bias  A type of data analysis error that creates the wrong data structure results and can lead to misinterpretation errors.
incidence rate  The percentage of the general population that is the subject of the marketing research.
independent samples  Two or more groups of responses that are tested as though they may come from different populations.
independent variable  An attribute of an object whose measurement values are directly manipulated by the researcher, also referred to as a predictor or treatment variable. This type of variable is assumed to be a causal factor in a functional relationship with a dependent variable.
in-depth interview  A formalized, structured process of a subject's being asked a set of semistructured, probing questions by a well-trained interviewer usually in a face-to-face setting.
indirect observation  A research technique in which researchers or trained observers rely on artifacts that, at best, represent specific reported behavioral outcomes from some earlier time.
information  The set of facts derived from data structures when someone-either the researcher or decision maker- interprets and attaches narrative meaning to the data structures.
informational data  Data collected through On-Line Analytical Processing (OLAP) software for analysis purposes as a decision-making tool for marketing programs.
information objectives  The clearly stated reasons why raw data must be collected; they serve as the guidelines for determining the raw data requirements.
information requirements  The identified factors, dimensions, and attributes within a stated information objective for which raw data must be collected.
information research process  The 10 systematic task steps involved in the four phases of gathering, analyzing, interpreting, and transforming data structures and results into information for use by decision makers.
information research questions  Specific statements that address the problem areas the research study will attempt to investigate.
in-home interview  A person-administrated interview that takes place in the respondent's home.
instrumentation  Contamination to internal validity measures from changes in measurement processes, observation techniques, and/or measuring instruments.
intelligibility  The degree to which questions can be understood by the respondents making up the defined target population to whom the scale will be administered.
intention to purchase  A person's planned future action to buy a product or service.
interdependence techniques  Multivariate statistical procedures in which the whole set of interdependent relationships is examined.
internal consistency reliability  The extent to which the items of a scale represent the same domain of content and are highly correlated both with each other and summated scale scores. It represents the degree to which the components are related to the same overall construct domain.
internal quality movement  One of the underlying factors for which many organizations are restructuring away from old traditional functional control/ power systems of operating to new cross-functional structures where team building, decision teams, and sharing of information and responsibility are the important factors, not control and power.
internal secondary data  Facts that have been collected by the individual company for accounting and marketing activity purposes.
internal validity  The certainty with which a researcher can state that the observed effect was caused by a specific treatment; exists when the research design accurately identifies causal relationships.
Internet  A network of computers and technology linking computers into an information superhighway.
Internet survey  The method of using the Internet to ask survey questions and record responses of respondents.
interpersonal communication skills  The interviewer's abilities to articulate the questions in a direct and clear manner so that the subject understands what she or he is responding to.
interpretive bias  Error that occurs when the wrong inference about the real world or defined target population is made by the researcher or decision maker due to some type of extraneous factor.
interpretive skills  The interviewer's capabilities of accurately understanding and recording the subject's responses to questions.
interval scales  Any question/scale format that activates not only the assignment and order scaling properties but also the distance property; all scale responses have a recognized absolute difference between each of the other scale points (responses).
interviewer error  A type of nonsampling error that is created in situations where the interviewer distorts information, in a systematic way, from respondents during or after the interviewer/respondent encounter.
interviewer instructions  The vehicle for training the interviewer on how to select prospective respondents, screen them for eligibility, and conduct the actual interview.
interviewer/mechanical devices  The combination of highly skilled people who are aided by high-technology devices during the questioning/respond-ing encounters with respondents.
introductory questions  Questions used by a focus group moderator to introduce the general topic of discussion and opportunities of reflecting their past experiences.
inverse (negative or indirect) directional hypothesis  A statement about the perceived relationship between two questions, dimensions, or subgroupings of attributes that suggests that as one factor moves in one direction, the other factor moves in an opposite fashion.
judgment sampling  A nonprobability sampling design that selects participants for a sample based on an experienced individual's belief that the participants will meet the requirements of the research study.
junk mail  A categorical descriptor that prospective respondents attach to surveys that are administered through the direct mail delivery system or an unwanted telephone interview that is viewed as being nothing more than a telemarketing gimmick to sell them something they do not want or need.
knowledge level of respondent  The degree to which the selected respondents feel they have experience (or knowledge) with the topics that are the focus of the survey's questioning.
lead country test markets  Field test markets that are conducted in specific foreign countries.
leading question  A question that tends to purposely elicit a particular answer.
level of significance  The amount of risk regarding the accuracy of the test that the researcher is willing to accept.
library  A large group of related information.
lifetime value models  Procedures developed using historical data, as well as actual purchase behavior, not probability estimates, to predict consumer behavior.
Likert scale  A special rating scale format that asks respondents to indicate the extent to which they agree or disagree with a series of mental belief or behavioral belief statements about a given object; it is a cognitive-based scale measurement.
limitations  A section of the final research report in which all extraneous events that place certain restrictions on the report are fully communicated.
linear relationship  An association between two variables whereby the strength and nature of the relationship remains the same over the range of both variables.
listening skills  The interviewer's capabilities of understanding what the respondent is communicating.
logistic assessment  Information in logistics that allows market researchers to conduct total cost analysis and service sensitivity analysis.
lottery approach  A unique incentive system that pools together either individual small cash incentives into a significantly larger dollar amount or a substantial nonmonetary gift and then holds a drawing to determine the winner or small set of winners. The drawing procedure is designed so that all respondents who complete and return their survey have an equal chance of receiving the larger reward.
mail panel survey  A representative sample of individual respondents who have agreed in advance to participate in a mail survey.
mall-intercept interview  An interview technique in which mall patrons are stopped and asked for feedback. The interview may take place in the mall's common areas or in the research firm's offices at the mall.
managerial function software system  A computer-based procedure that includes forecasting, brand management, and promotional budget capabilities.
marketing  The process of planning and executing pricing, promotion, product, and distribution of products, services, and ideas in order to create exchanges that satisfy both the firm and its customers.
marketing decision support system (MDSS)  A computer-based system intended for use by particular marketing personnel at any functional level for the purpose of solving information and/or semistructured problems. Within this system databases are developed and used to analyze the firm's performance as well as control its marketing activities.
marketing knowledge  A characteristic that complements a re-searcher's technical competency.
marketing research  The function that links an organization to its market through the gathering of information. The information allows for the identification and definition of market-driven opportunities and problems. The information allows for the generation, refinement, and evaluation of marketing actions.
market intelligence  The use of real-time customer information (customer knowledge) to achieve a competitive advantage.
market performance symptoms  Conditions that signal the presence of a decision problem and/or opportunity.
maturation  Contamination to internal validity measures due to changes in the dependent variable based on the natural function of time and not attributed to any specific event.
mean  The arithmetic average of all the raw responses; all values of a distribution of responses are summed and divided by the number of valid responses.
measurement  Rules for assigning numbers to objects so that these numbers represent quantities of attributes.
measurement/design error  A "family" of nonsampling errors that result from inappropriate designs in the constructs, scale measurements, or survey measurements used to execute the asking and recording of people's responses to a study's questions.
measures of central tendency  The basic sample statistics that could be generated through analyzing the collected raw data; they are the mode, the median, and the mean.
measures of dispersion  The sample statistics that describe how all the raw data are actually dispersed around a given measure of central tendency; they are the frequency distribution, the range, and the estimated sample standard deviation.
mechanical devices  High-technology instruments that can artificially observe and record either current behavioral actions or physical phenomena as they occur.
mechanical observation  Some type of mechanical or electronic device is used to capture human behavior, events, or marketing phenomena.
median  The sample statistic that splits the raw data into a hierarchical pattern where half the raw data is above the median statistic value and half is below.
media panels  Selected households that are primarily used in measuring media viewing habits as opposed to product/brand consumption patterns.
method bias  The error source that results from selecting an inappropriate method to investigate the research question.
misinterpretation error  An inaccurate transformation of data structures and analysis results into usable bits of information for the decision maker.
mode  The most frequently mentioned (or occurring) raw response in the set of responses to a given question/setup.
model F statistic  A statistic which compares the amount of variation in the dependent measure "explained" or associated with the independent variables to the "unexplained" or error variance. A larger F-statistic value indicates that the regression model has more explained variance than error variance.
moderator's guide  A detailed document that outlines the topics, questions, and subquestions that serve as the basis for generating the spontaneous interactive dialogue among the focus group participants.
modified Likert scale  Any version of the agreement/disagreement-based scale measurement that is not the original five-point "strongly agree" to "strongly disagree" scale.
monetary compensation  An individual cash incentive used by the researcher to increase the likelihood of a prospective respondent's willingness to participate in the survey.
monomethod bias  A particular type of error source that is created when only a single method is used to collect data about the research question.
moral philosophy  A person's basic orientation toward problem solving. Within the ethical decision-making process, philosophical thinking will come from teleology, deontology, and/or relativity orientations.
mortality  Contamination to internal validity measures due to changing the composition of the test subjects in the experiment.
multicollinearity  A situation in which several independent variables are highly correlated with each other. This characteristic can result in difficulty in estimating separate or independent regression coefficients for the correlated variables.
multiple-item scale designs  Method used when the researcher has to measure several items (or attributes) simultaneously in order to measure the complete object or construct of interest.
multiple regression analysis  A statistical technique which analyzes the linear relationships between a dependent variable and multiple independent variables by estimating coefficients for the equation for a straight line.
multivariate analysis (techniques)  A group of statistical techniques used when there are two or more measurements on each element and the variables are analyzed simultaneously.
mystery shopper studies  Studies in which trained, professional shoppers visit stores, financial institutions, or companies and "shop" for various products and assess service quality factors or levels.
nominal scales  Question/scale structures that ask the respondent to provide only a descriptor as the raw response; the response does not contain any level of intensity.
nomological validity  The extent to which one particular construct theoretically networks with other established constructs which are related yet different.
nonapplicable response descriptor  The alternative response attached to even-point (or forced-choice) scale designs that allows respondents not to directly respond to a given scale dimension or attribute if they feel uncomfortable about expressing thoughts or feelings about a given object because they lack knowledge or experience.
noncomparative scale  Scale used when the scaling objective is to have a respondent express an attitude, emotion, action, or intention about one specific object (person, phenomenon) or its attributes.
nondirectional hypothesis  A statement regarding the existing relationship between two questions, dimensions, or sub-groupings of attributes as being significantly different but lacking an expression of direction.
nonequivalent control group  A quasi-experimental design that combines the static group comparison and one-group, pretest-posttest preexperimental designs.
nonmonetary compensation  Any type of individual incentive excluding direct cash (e.g., a free T-shirt) used by the researcher to encourage a prospective respondent's participation.
nonprobability sampling  Sampling designs in which the probability of selection of each sampling unit is not known. The selection of sampling units is based on the judgment or knowledge of the researcher and may or may not be representative of the target population.
nonresponse error  An error that occurs when the portion of the defined target population not represented or underrepresented in the response pool is systematically and significantly different from those that did respond.
nonsampling error  A type of bias that occurs in a research study regardless of whether a sample or census is used.
North American industry classification system (NAICS)  Codes numerical industrial listings designed to promote uniformity in data reporting procedures for the U.S. government.
not at home  A specific type of non-response bias that occurs when a reasonable attempt to initially reach a prospective respondent fails to produce an interviewer/respondent encounter.
null hypothesis  A statement of the perceived existing relationship between two questions, dimensions, or subgroupings of attributes as being not significantly different; it asserts the status quo condition, and any change from what has been thought to be true is due to random sampling error.
object  Any tangible item in a person's environment that can be clearly and easily identified through the senses.
objectivity  The degree to which a researcher uses scientific procedures to collect, analyze, and create nonbiased information.
observation  The systematic process of witnessing and recording the behavioral patterns of objects, people, and occurrences without directly questioning or communicating with them.
observing mechanism  How the behaviors or events will be observed; human observation is when the observer is either a person hired and trained by the researcher or the researcher himself; mechanical observation refers to the use of a tech-nology-based device to do the observing rather than a human observer.
odd or even number of scale points  When collecting either state-of-mind or state-of-intention data, the researcher must decide whether the positive and negative scale points need to be separated by a neutral scale descriptor; even-point scales (known as forced-choice scales) do not require a neutral response, but odd-point scales (known as free-choice scales) must offer a neutral scale response.
one-group, pretest-posttest  A pre-experimental design where first a pretreatment measure of the dependent variable is taken (O1), then the test subjects are exposed to the independent treatment (X), then a posttreatment measure of the dependent variable is taken (O2).
one-shot study  A single group of test subjects is exposed to the independent variable treatment (X), and then a single measurement on the dependent variable is taken (O1).
one-way tabulation  The categorization of single variables existing in the study.
online focus groups  A formalized process whereby a small group of people form an online community for an interactive, spontaneous discussion on one particular topic or concept.
online services  Providers of access to electronic databases and other services in real time.
opening questions  Questions used by a focus group moderator to break the ice among focus group participants; identify common group member traits; and create a comfort zone for establishing group dynamics and interactive discussions.
operational data  Data collected through online transaction processing (OLTP) and used for the daily operations of the business.
operationalization  The process of precisely delineating how a construct is to be measured. The variables are specified in such a manner as to be potentially observable or manipulable.
opportunity assessment  The collection of information on product-markets for the purpose of forecasting how they will change in the future. This type of assessment focuses on gathering information relevant to macroenvironments.
optical scanner  An electronic device that optically reads bar codes; this scanner captures and translates unique bar code numbers into product information.
order property  The scaling property that activates the existence of relative magnitudes between the descriptors used as scale points (or raw responses); it allows the researcher to establish either a higher-to-lower or lower-to-higher rank order among the raw responses.
ordinally interval scales  Ordinal questions or scale formats that the researcher artificially redefines as being interval by activating an assumed distance scaling property into the design structure; this hybrid-type scale format incorporates both primary ordinal scale descriptors and a secondary set of cardinal numbers used to redefine the original primary descriptors.
ordinal scales  A question/scale format that activates both the assignment and order scaling properties; the respondent is asked to express relative magnitudes between the raw responses to a question.
ordinary least squares  A statistical procedure that estimates regression equation coefficients which produce the lowest sum of squared differences between the actual and predicted values of the dependent variable.
origin property  The scaling property that activates a unique starting (or beginning) point in a set of scale points that is designated as being a "true zero" or true state of nothing.
overall incidence rate (OIR)  The percentage of the defined target population elements who actually qualify for inclusion into the survey.
overall reputation  The primary dimension of perceived quality outcomes. Quality of the end product can be gauged in direct proportion to the level of expertise, trust, believability, and contribution the research brings to the client.
overregistration  When a sampling frame contains all of the eligible sampling units of the defined target population plus additional ones.
paired-comparison rating scale  A scale format in which preselected groups of product characteristics or features are paired against one another and the respondents are asked to select which feature in each pairing is more important to them.
part-worth estimates  Estimates of the utility survey that respondents place on each individual level of a particular attribute or feature.
passive data  Data supplied to a business when a consumer visits the company's Web site.
Pearson correlation coefficient  A statistical measure of the strength and direction of a linear relationship between two metric variables.
perceptual map  A graphic representation of respondents' beliefs about the relationship between objects with respect to two or more dimensions (usually attributes or features of the objects).
performance rating scale descriptors  A scale that uses an evaluative scale point format that allows the respondents to express some type of postdecision evaluative judgment about an object.
person-administered survey  A survey in which an individual interviewer asks questions and records responses.
phantom respondents  A type of data falsification that occurs when the researcher takes an actual respondent's data and duplicates it to represent a second (nonexisting) set of responses.
physical audits (or traces)  Tangible evidence (or artifacts) of some past event or recorded behavior.
plus-one dialing  The method of generating telephone numbers to be called by choosing numbers randomly from a telephone directory and adding one digit.
population  The identifiable total set of elements of interest being investigated by a researcher.
population mean value  The actual calculated arithmetic average parameter value based on interval or ratio data of the defined target population elements (or sampling units).
population proportion value  The actual calculated percentage parameter value of the characteristic of concern held by the target population elements (or sampling units).
population size  The determined total number of elements that represent the target population.
population specification error  An incorrect definition of the true target population to the research question.
population standard deviation  A quantitative index of the dispersion of the distribution of population elements' actual data around the arithmetic average measure of central tendency.
population variance  The square of the population standard deviation.
positioning  The desired perception that a company wants to be associated with its target markets relative to its products or brand offerings.
posttest-only, control group  A true experimental design where the test subjects are randomly assigned to either the experimental or control group; the experimental group is then exposed to the independent treatment after which both groups receive a posttreatment measure of the dependent variable.
PowerPoint  A specific software package used to develop slides for electronic presentation of the research results.
precise precision  The amount of measured sampling error associated with the sample's raw data at a specified level of confidence.
precision  The degree of exactness of the raw data in relation to some other possible response of the target population.
predictions  Population estimates that are carried into a future time frame; they are derived from either facts or sample data estimates.
predictive bias  A specific type of data analysis error that occurs when the wrong statistical facts and estimates invalidate the re-searcher's ability to predict and test relationships between important factors.
predictive questionnaire design  A design that allows the researcher to collect raw data that can be used in predicting changes in attitudes and behaviors as well as testing hypothesized relationships. The question/scales primarily involve the collecting of state-of-mind and state-of-intention data.
predictive validity  The extent to which a scale can accurately predict some event external to the scale itself.
pre-experimental designs  A family of designs (one-shot study, one-group pretest-posttest, static group comparison) that are crude experiments that are characterized by the absence of randomization of test subjects; they tend not to meet internal validity criteria due to a lack of equivalent group comparisons.
pretesting  The conducting of a simulated administering of a designed survey (or questionnaire) to a small, representative group of respondents.
pretest-posttest, control group  A true experimental design where the test subjects are randomly assigned to either the experimental or the control group and each group receives a pretreatment measure of the dependent variable. Then the independent treatment is exposed to the experimental group, after which both groups receive a posttreatment measure of the dependent variable.
primary data  Data structures of variables that have been specifically collected and assembled for the current research problem or opportunity situation; they represent "firsthand" structures.
primary information  Firsthand facts or estimates that are derived through a formalized research process for a specific current problem situation.
probability distribution of the population  The relative frequencies of a population's parameter characteristic emulating a normal bell-shaped pattern.
probability sampling  Sampling designs in which each sampling unit in the sampling frame (operational population) has a known, nonzero probability of being selected for the sample.
probing questions  The outcome of an interviewer's taking the sub-ject's initial response to a question and using that response as the framework for asking the next question.
problem definition  A statement that seeks to determine precisely what problem management wishes to solve and the type of information necessary to solve it.
product analysis  Methods that identify the relative importance of product selection criteria to buyers and rate brands against these criteria.
project costs  The price requirements of doing marketing research.
projective techniques  A family of qualitative data collection methods where subjects are asked to project themselves into specified buying situations and then asked questions about those situations.
proportionate stratified sampling  A form of stratified sampling in which the sample size from each stratum is dependent on that stratum's size relative to the total population.
protocol interviewing  A technique that takes respondents into a specified decision-making situation and asks them to verbally express the process and activities considered when making the decision.
psychogalvanometer  A device that measures a subject's involuntary changes in the electronic resistance of his or her skin, referred to as galvanic skin response (GVR).
pupilometer  A device that observes and records changes in the diameter of a subject's pupils. Changes are interpreted as the result of unobservable cognitive activity.
purchase intercept interview  An interview similar to a mall intercept except that the respondent is stopped at the point of purchase and asked a set of predetermined questions.
qualitative research  Selective types of research methods used in exploratory research designs where the main objective is to gain a variety of preliminary insights to discover and identify decision problems and opportunities.
quality of the information  One of the two fundamental dimensions that is used to determine the level of information being provided by the research process; it refers to the degree to which the information can be depended on as being accurate and reliable.
quantitative research  Data collection methods that emphasize using formalized, standard, structured questioning practices where the response options have been predetermined by the researcher and administered to significantly large numbers of respondents.
quasi-experimental designs  Designs in which the researcher can control some variables in the study but cannot establish equal experimental and control groups based on randomization of the test subjects.
query  Part of an MDSS that enables the user to retrieve information from the system without having to have special software requirements.
questionnaire  A set of questions and scales designed to generate enough raw data for accomplishing the information requirements that underlie the research objectives.
questionnaire development process  A specific yet integrative series of logical activities that are undertaken to design a systematic survey instrument for the purpose of collecting primary raw data from sets of people (respondents).
questionnaire format/layout  The integrative combination of sets of question/scale measurements into a systematic structured instrument.
question/setup element  The question and/or directive that is asked of the respondent for which the respondent is to supply a raw response; it is one of the three elements that make up any scale measurement.
quota sampling  The selection of participants based on specific quotas regarding characteristics such as age, race, gender, income, or specific behaviors. Quotas are usually determined by specific research objectives.
quota sheets  A simple tracking form that enhances the interviewer's ability to collect raw data from the right type of respondents; the form helps ensure that representation standards are met.
random-digit dialing  A random selection of area code, exchange, and suffix numbers.
random error  An error that occurs as the result of chance events affecting the observed score.
randomization  The procedure whereby many subjects are assigned to different experimental treatment conditions, resulting in each group's averaging out any systematic effect on the investigated functional relationship between the independent and dependent variables.
random sampling error  The statistically measured difference between the actual sampled results and the estimated true population results.
ranges  Statistics that represent the grouping of raw data responses into mutually exclusive subgroups with each having distinct identifiable lower and upper boundary designation values in a set of responses.
rank-order rating scale  A scale point format that allows respondents to compare their responses to each other by indicating their first preference, then their second preference, then their third preference, etc., until all the desired responses are placed in some type of rank order, either highest to lowest or lowest to highest.
rating cards  Cards used in personal interviews that represent a reproduction of the set of actual scale points and descriptions used to respond to a specific question/setup in the survey. These cards serve as a tool to help the interviewer and respondent speed up the data collection process.
ratio scales  Question/scale formats that simultaneously activate all four scaling properties; they are the most sophisticated scale in the sense that absolute differences can be identified not only between each scale point but also between individuals' raw responses. Ratio scales request that respondents give a specific singular numerical value as their response to the question.
raw data  The actual firsthand responses that are obtained about the investigated object by either asking questions or observing the subject's actions.
reachable rate (RR)  The percentage of active addresses on a mailing list or other defined population frame.
reader-sorter  An electronic mechanism located at the point-of-purchase (POP) that resembles a miniature automated bank teller machine. This device enables consumers to pay for transactions with credit cards, ATM cards, or debit cards.
real-time transactional data  Data collected at the point of sale.
reflective composite scale  Scale used when a researcher measures an individual subcomponent (dimension) of a construct, object, or phenomenon.
refusal  A particular type of nonresponse bias that is caused when a prospective respondent declines the role of a respondent, or simply is unwilling to participate in the question/answer exchange.
regression coefficient  The statistical measure of the slope coefficient (b) of an independent variable (x) that tells how much the researcher can expect the dependent variable (y) to change, given a unit change in (x).
related samples  Two or more groups of responses that originated from the sample population.
relational database system  A database in table format of rows and columns, with tables (not data fields) being linked together depending on the output requirements.
relationship marketing  A management philosophy that focuses on treating each customer as uniquely different with the overall goal of building a long-term, interactive relationship and loyalty with each customer.
relationships  The degree (relative magnitude) and direction of a consistent and systematic linkage (dependence) between two or more variables; this type of information can be derived from either facts or sample data estimates; in special cases, the researcher can determine the existence of cause-effect associations between two or more variables.
relativists  Individuals who let present practice set the standard for ethical behavior.
reliability  The extent to which the measurements taken with a particular instrument are repeatable.
reliability of data  Data structures that are consistent across observations or interviews.
reliability of the scale  The extent to which the designed scale can reproduce the same measurement results in repeated trials.
reliability of service  The researcher's ability to be consistent and responsive to the needs of the client.
reputation of the firm  The culmination of a research firm's ability to meet standards, reliability of service, marketing knowledge, and technical competency for purposes of providing quality outcomes.
research instrument  A microscope, radiation meter, ruler, questionnaire, scale, or other device designed for a specific measurement purpose.
research objectives  Statements that the research project will attempt to achieve. They provide the guidelines for establishing a research agenda of activities necessary to implement the research process.
research proposal  A specific document that serves as a written contract between the decision maker and researcher.
respondent characteristics  The attributes that make up the respondents being included in the survey; three important characteristics are diversity, incidence, and participation.
respondent error  The type of non-sampling errors that can occur when selected prospective respondents cannot be initially reached to participate in the survey process, do not cooperate, or demonstrate an unwillingness to participate in the survey.
respondent participation  The overall degree to which the selected people have the ability and the willingness to participate as well as the knowledge of the topics being researched.
response error  The tendency to answer a question in a particular and unique systematic way. Respondents may consciously or unconsciously distort their answers and true thoughts.
response rate  The percentage of usable responses out of the total number of responses.
retailing research  Research investigations that focus on topics such as trade area analysis, store image/perception, in-store traffic patterns, and location analysis.
role-playing interviews  A technique in which participants are asked to take on the identity of a third person and are placed into a specific predetermined situation. They are then asked to verbalize how they would act in the situation.
sales forecasting  A research method that uses variables that affect customer demand to provide estimates of financial outcomes for different price strategies.
sample  A randomly selected group of people or objects from the overall membership pool of a target population.
sample design error  A family of nonsampling errors that occur when sampling plans are not appropriately developed and/or the sampling process is improperly executed by the researcher.
sample mean value  The actual calculated arithmetic average value based on interval or ratio data of the drawn sampling units.
sample percentage value  The actual calculated percentage value of the characteristic of concern held by the drawn sampling units.
sample selection error  A specific type of sample design bias that occurs when an inappropriate sample is drawn from the defined target population because of incomplete or faulty sampling procedures or because the correct procedures have not been carried out.
sample size  The determined total number of sampling units needed to be representative of the defined target population; that is, the number of elements (people or objects) that have to be included in a drawn sample to ensure appropriate representation of the defined target population.
sampling  The process of selecting a relatively small number of elements from a larger defined group of elements so that the information gathered from the smaller group allows one to make judgments about that larger group of elements.
sampling distribution  The frequency distribution of a specific sample statistic value that would be found by taking repeated random samples of the same size.
sampling error  Any type of bias in a survey study that is attributable to mistakes made in either the selection process of prospective sampling units or determining the size of a sample required to ensure its representativeness of the larger defined target population.
sampling frame  A list of all eligible sampling units for a given study.
sampling frame error  An error that occurs when a sample is drawn from an incomplete list of potential or prospective respondents.
sampling gap  The representation difference between the population elements and sampling units in the sample frame.
sampling plan  The blueprint or framework used to ensure that the raw data collected are, in fact, representative of a larger defined target population structure.
sampling units  Those elements that are available for selection during the sampling process.
satisfaction of experience  A person's evaluative judgment about his or her postpurchase consumption experience of a specified object.
scale dimensions and attributes element  The components of the object, construct, or concept that is being measured; it identifies what should be measured and is one of the three elements of a scale measurement.
scale measurement  The process of assigning a set of descriptors to represent the range of possible responses that an individual gives in answering a question about a particular object, construct, or factor under investigation.
scale points  The set of assigned descriptors that designate the degrees of intensity to the responses concerning the investigated characteristics of an object, construct, or factor; it is one of the three elements that make up scale measurements.
scale reliability  The extent to which a scale can produce the same measurement results in repeated trials.
scatter diagram  A graphic plot of the relative position of two variables using a horizontal and a vertical axis to represent the values of the respective variables.
scientific method  The systematic and objective process used to develop reliable and valid firsthand information by using the information research process.
scoring models  Procedures that attempt to rank customer segments by their potential profitability to the company.
screening forms  A set of preliminary questions that are used to determine the eligibility of a prospective respondent for inclusion in the survey.
screening question/scales  Specific questions or scales that are used to qualify prospective respondents for a survey or eliminate unqualified respondents from answering question/scales in a study.
search  A computer-assisted scan of the electronic databases.
search engine  An electronic procedure that allows the researcher to enter keywords as search criteria for locating and gathering secondary information off the Internet.
search words  The terms that the computer looks for in electronic databases.
secondary data  Historical data structures of variables that have been previously collected and assembled for some research problem or opportunity situation other than the current situation.
secondary information  Information (facts or estimates) that has already been collected, assembled, and interpreted at least once for some other specific situation.
selection bias  Contamination of internal validity measures created by inappropriate selection and/or assignment processes of test subjects to experimental treatment groups.
selective perception bias  A type of error that occurs in situations where the researcher or decision maker uses only a selected portion of the survey results to paint a tainted picture of reality.
self-administered survey  A survey in which respondents read the survey questions and record their responses without the assistance of an interviewer.
semantic differential scale  A special type of symmetrical rating scale that uses sets of bipolar adjectives and/or adverbs to describe some type of positive and negative poles of an assumed continuum; it is used to capture respondents' cognitive and affective components of specified factors and create perceptual image profiles relating to a given object or behavior.
semistructured question  A question that directs the respondent toward a specified topic area, but the responses to the question are unbounded; the interviewer is not looking for any preconceived right answer.
separate sample, pretest-posttest  A quasi-experimental design where two different groups of test subjects are drawn for which neither group is directly exposed to the independent treatment variable. One group receives the pretest measure of the dependent variable; then after the insignificant independent treatment occurs, the second group of test subjects receives a posttest measure of the dependent variable.
sequential database system  A sorting procedure that displays data in a very simple pattern, usually where the data are organized by a simple path, linkage, or network.
service quality studies  Studies designed to measure the degree to which an organization conforms to the quality level expected by customers; they concentrate on attributes determined to be most important to customers.
service sensitivity analysis  A procedure that helps an organization in designing a basic customer service program by evaluating cost-to-service trade-offs.
silo  Data in one functional area of a business not shared with other areas of the business.
similarity judgments  A direct approach to gathering perceptual data for multidimensional scaling; where the respondents use a Likert scale to rate all possible pairs of brands in terms of their similarity.
simple random sampling (SRS)  A method of probability sampling in which every sampling unit has an equal, nonzero chance of being selected. Results generated by using simple random sampling can be projected to the target population with a prespecified margin of error.
simulated test markets  Quasi-test market experiments where the test subjects are preselected, then interviewed and observed on their purchases and attitudes toward the test products; also referred to as laboratory tests or test market simulations.
single-item scale descriptors  A scale used when the data requirements focus on collecting data about only one attribute of the object or construct being investigated.
situation analysis  An informal process of analyzing the past, present, and future situations facing an organization in order to identify decision problems and opportunities.
situational characteristics  Factors of reality such as budgets, time, and data quality that affect the researcher's ability to collect accurate primary data in a timely fashion.
skip interval  A selection tool used to identify the position of the sampling units to be drawn into a systematic random sample design. The interval is determined by dividing the number of potential sampling units in the defined target population by the number of units desired in the sample.
skip questions/scales  Questions designed to set the conditions which a respondent must meet in order to be able to respond to additional questions on a survey; also referred to as conditional or branching questions.
snowball sampling  A nonprobability sampling method that involves the practice of identifying a set of initial prospective respondents who can, in turn, help in identifying additional people to be included in the study.
social desirability  A type of response bias that occurs when the respondent assumes what answer is socially acceptable or respectable.
Solomon Four Group  A true experimental design that combines the pretest-posttest, control group and posttest only, control group designs and provides both "direct" and "reactive" effects of testing.
Spearman rank order correlation coefficient  A statistical measure of the linear association between two variables where both have been measured using ordinal (rank-order) scale instruments.
split-half test  A technique used to evaluate the internal consistency reliability of scale measurements that have multiple attribute components.
standard deviation  The measure of the average dispersion of the values in a set of responses about their mean.
standard error of the population parameter  Astatistical measure used in probability sampling that gives an indication of how far the sample result lies from the actual population measure we are trying to estimate.
standard industrial classification (SIC) codes  The numerical scheme of industrial listings designed to promote uniformity in data reporting procedures for the U.S. government.
staple scales  Considered a modified version of the semantic differential scale; they symmetrically center the scale point domain within a set of plus (+) and minus (-) descriptors.
state-of-behavior data  Raw responses that represent an individual's or organization's current observable actions or reactions or recorded past actions/reactions.
state-of-being data  Raw responses that are pertinent to the physical and/or demographic or socioeconomic characteristics of individuals, objects, or organizations.
state-of-intention data  Raw responses that represent an individual's or organization's expressed plans of future actions/reactions.
state-of-mind data  Raw responses that represent the mental attributes or emotional feelings of individuals which are not directly observable or available through some type of external source.
static group comparisons  A pre-experimental design of two groups of test subjects; one is the experimental group (EG) and is exposed to the independent treatment; the second group is the control group (CG) and is not given the treatment; the dependent variable is measured in both groups after the treatment.
statistical conclusion validity  The ability of the researcher to make reasonable statements about co-variation between constructs of interest and the strength of that covariation.
statistical regression  Contamination to internal validity measures created when experimental groups are selected on the basis of their extreme responses or scores.
statistical software system  A computer-based system that has capabilities of analyzing large volumes of data and computing basic types of statistical procedures, such as means, standard deviations, frequency distributions, and percentages.
store audits  Formal examinations and verifications of how much of a particular product or brand has been sold at the retail level.
strata  The subgroupings that are derived through stratified random sampling procedures.
stratified random sampling (STRS)  A method of probability sampling in which the population is divided into different subgroups (called strata) and samples are selected from each stratum.
structured questions  Questions that require the respondent to make a choice among a limited number of prelisted responses or scale points; they require less thought and effort on the part of the respondent; also referred to as closed-ended questions.
structuredness of observation  The degree to which the behaviors or events are specifically known to the researcher prior to doing the observations.
subjective information  Information that is based on the decision maker's or researcher's past experiences, assumptions, feelings, or interpretations without any systematic assembly of facts or estimates.
subject's awareness  The degree to which subjects consciously know their behavior is being observed; disguised observation is when the subject is completely unaware that he or she is being observed, and undisguised observation is when the person is aware that he or she is being observed.
supervisor instructions  A form that serves as a blueprint for training people on how to execute the interviewing process in a standardized fashion; it outlines the process by which to conduct a study that uses personal and telephone interviewers.
survey instrument design error  A "family" of design or format errors that produce a questionnaire that does not accurately collect the appropriate raw data; these nonsampling errors severely limit the generalizability, reliability, and validity of the collected data.
survey instrument error  A type of error that occurs when the survey instrument induces some type of systematic bias in the response.
survey research methods  Research design procedures for collecting large amounts of raw data using interviews or questionnaires.
symptoms  Conditions that signal the presence of a decision problem or opportunity; they tend to be observable and measurable results of problems or opportunities.
syndicated (or commercial) data  Data and information that have been compiled according to some standardized procedure which provides customized data for companies such as market share, ad effectiveness, and sales tracking.
systematic error  The type of error that results from poor instrument design and/or instrument construction causing scores or readings on an instrument to be biased in a consistent manner; creates some form of systematic variation in the raw data that is not a natural occurrence or fluctuation on the part of the surveyed respondents.
systematic random-digit dialing  The technique of randomly dialing telephone numbers, but only numbers that meet specific criteria.
systematic random sampling (SYMRS)  A method of probability sampling that is similar to simple random sampling but requires that the defined target population be naturally ordered in some way.
table of random numbers  A table of numbers that have been randomly generated.
tabulation  The simple procedure of counting the number of observations, or data items, that are classified into certain categories.
target market analysis  Information for identifying those people (or companies) that an organization wishes to serve.
target population  A specified group of people or objects for which questions can be asked or observations made to develop required data structures and information.
task characteristics  The requirements placed on the respondents in their process of providing answers to questions asked.
task difficulty  How hard the respondent needs to work to respond, and the level of preparation required to create an environment for the respondent.
technical competency  The degree to which the researcher possesses the necessary functional requirements to conduct the research project.
teleologists  Individuals who follow a philosophy that considers activities to be ethical if they produce desired results.
telephone-administered survey  A survey in which individuals working out of their homes or from a central location use the telephone medium to ask participants questions and record the responses.
telephone interview  A question-and-answer exchange that is conducted via telephone technology.
test marketing  A controlled field experiment conducted for gaining information on specified market performance indicators or factors.
test-retest  A procedure used to assess the reliability of a scale measurement; it involves repeating the administration of the scale measurement to either the sample set of sampled respondents at two different times or two different samples of respondents from the same defined target population under as nearly the same conditions as possible.
test-retest reliability  The method of accumulating evidence of reliability by using multiple administrations of an instrument to the same sample. If those administrations are consistent, then evidence of test-retest reliability exists.
theory  A large body of interconnected propositions about how some portion of a certain phenomenon operates.
topic sensitivity  The degree to which a specific question or investigated issue leads the respondent to give a socially acceptable response.
topographically integrated geographic encoding and referencing (TIGER) system  The U.S. government's new system that provides the researcher with the ability to prepare detailed maps of a variety of areas within the United States.
touchpoint  Specific customer information gathered and shared by all individuals in an enterprise.
traditional test markets  Test markets that use experimental design procedures to test a product and/or a product's marketing mix variables through existing distribution channels; also referred to as standard test markets.
trained interviewers  Highly trained people, with excellent communication and listening skills, who ask research participants specific questions and accurately record their responses.
trained observers  Highly skilled people who use their various sensory devices to observe and record either a person's current behaviors or physical phenomena as they take place.
transactional data  Secondary information derived from transactions by consumers at the retail level.
transition questions  Questions used by a moderator to direct a focus group's discussion toward the main topic of interest.
trilogy approach  The theoretical approach of viewing a person's attitude toward an object as consisting of three distinct components: cognitive, affective, and conative.
true experimental designs  Designs that ensure equivalence between the experimental and control groups of subjects by random assignment of subjects to the groups ("pretest-posttest, with control group," "posttestonly, with control group," Solomon Four Group).
t-test (also referred to as t statistic)  A hypothesis test procedure that uses the t-distribution: t-tests are used when the sample size of subjects is small (generally less than 30) and the standard deviation is unknown.
Type I error  The error made by rejecting the null hypothesis when it is true; represents the probability of alpha error.
Type II error  The error of failing to reject the null hypothesis when the alternative hypothesis is true; represents the probability of beta error.
underregistration  When eligible sampling units are left out of the sampling frame.
undisguised sponsorship  When the true identity of the person or company for which the research is being conducted is directly revealed to the prospective respondent.
unexplained variance  In multivariate methods, it is the amount of variation in the dependent construct that cannot be accounted for by the combination of independent variables.
unstructured questions  Question/scale formats that require respondents to reply in their own words; this format requires more thinking and effort on the part of respondents in order to express their answers; also called open-ended questions.
validity  The degree to which a research instrument serves the purpose for which it was constructed; it also relates to the extent to which the conclusions drawn from an experiment are true.
validity of data  The degree to which data structures actually do represent what was to be measured.
variability  A measure of how data are dispersed; the greater the dissimilarity or "spread" in data, the larger the variability.
variable  Any observable, measurable element (or attribute) of an event.
variance  The average squared deviations about a mean of a distribution of values.
virtual test markets  Completely computerized systems that allow the test subjects to observe and interact with the product as though they were actually in the test store's environment.
voice pitch analyzer  A computerized system that measures emotional responses by changes in the subject's voice.
Web-based TV test markets  Use of broadband interactive TV (iTV) and advances in interactive multimedia communication technologies to conduct field experiments. Preselected respondents are shown various stimuli and asked questions online through their iTV.
Web home page  The guide to a Web site; generally the home page is the first Web page accessed at the Web site.
Web page  A source of secondary information that is likely to be linked to other complementary pages; includes text, graphics, and even audio.
Web site  An electronic location on the World Wide Web.
width  The total number of records contained in the database.
willingness to participate  The respondent's inclination or disposition to share his or her thoughts and feelings.
World Wide Web (WWW)  A graphical interface system that allows for text linkage between different locations on the Internet.
wrong mailing address  A type of nonresponse bias that can occur when the prospective respon-dent's mailing address is outdated or no longer active.
wrong telephone number  A type of nonresponse bias that can occur when the prospective respondent's telephone number either is no longer in service or is incorrect on the sample list.
z-test (also referred to as z statistic)  A hypothesis test procedure that uses the z distribution; z-tests are used when the sample size is larger than 30 subjects and the standard deviation is unknown.





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