Marketing managers know that the measurement of attitudes is an important aspect of marketing strategy and often the best tool available because attitudes reflect past experience and shape future behavior. Attitudes are learned, stable predispositions to respond to oneself, other persons, objects, or issues in a consistently favorable or unfavorable way. Attitudes are generally thought to be composed of three components: affective, cognitive, and behavioral intentions.
Selecting and constructing a measurement scale requires the consideration of several factors that influence the reliability, validity, and practicality of the scale. Two broad research objectives are to measure characteristics of the individuals who participate in studies and to use participants as judges of the objects or indicants presented to them. Measurement scales fall into one of four general response types: rating, ranking, categorization, and sorting. The properties of data are classified in increasing order of power—nominal, ordinal, interval, or ratio—which determines how a particular measurement scale's data will be analyzed statistically. Measurement scales are either unidimensional or multidimensional. A balanced rating scale has an equal number of categories above and below the midpoint, whereas an unbalanced rating scale has an unequal number of favorable and unfavorable response choices. An unforced-choice rating scale provides participants with an opportunity to express no opinion when they are unable to make a choice among the alternatives offered. A forced-choice scale requires that they select one of the offered alternatives. The ideal number of points for a rating scale should match the stimulus presented and extract information proportionate to the complexity of the attitude object. The value of rating scales depends on the assumption that a rater can and will make good judgments. Errors of central tendency, halo effect, and leniency adversely affect a precise understanding of the measurement.
Rating scales have several uses, design features, and requirements. The simple category scale offers two mutually exclusive response choices. The multiple-choice, single response scale offers the rater several options, including "other." The multiple-choice, multiple-response scale (also called a checklist) allows the rater to select one or several alternatives, thereby providing a cumulative feature. The Likert scale consists of a series of statements, and the participant is asked to agree or disagree with each statement. Summation is possible with this scale although not necessary and in some instances undesirable. The semantic differential (SD) scale measures the psychological meanings of an attitude object. Researchers use this scale for marketing studies of brand and institutional image. The method consists of a set of bipolar rating scales, usually with 7 points, by which one or more participants rate one or more concepts on each scale item. The Stapel scale is used as an alternative to the semantic differential, especially when it is difficult to find bipolar adjectives that match the investigative question. Participants select a plus number for the characteristic that describes the attitude object. Ratings range from +5 to -5, where participants select a number that describes the object very accurately to very inaccurately. Numerical scales have equal intervals that separate their numeric scale points. Verbal anchors serve as the labels for the extreme points. Numerical scales are often 5-point scales but may have 7 or 10 points. A multiple rating list scale is similar to the numerical scale but accepts a circled response from the rater, and the layout allows visualization of the results. A scale that helps the researcher discover proportions is the constant-sum scale. The participant distributes 100 points among up to 10 categories. The graphic rating scale was originally created to enable researchers to discern fine differences. Raters check their response at any point along a continuum. Other graphic rating scales use pictures, icons, or other visuals to communicate with children or others whose limited vocabulary prevents the use of scales anchored with words. Ranking scales allow the participant to compare two or more objects and makes choices among them. Frequently, the participant is asked to select one as the "best" or the "most preferred." When there are only two choices, as with the paired-comparison scale, the participant can express attitudes unambiguously by choosing between two objects. The forced ranking scale lists attributes that are ranked relative to each other. This method is faster than paired comparisons and more user-friendly. Often the marketing manager is interested in benchmarking. This calls for a standard by which other programs, processes, brands, point-of-sale promotions, or people can be compared. The comparative scale is ideal for such comparisons if the participants are familiar with the standard. Q-sorts are a form of scaling that requires sorting of a deck of cards into piles that represent points along a continuum. The purpose of sorting is to get a conceptual representation of the sorter's attitude toward the attitude object and to compare the relationships between people. Given a person's total score, it is possible to estimate which items were answered positively and negatively on cumulative scales. A pioneering cumulative scale was the scalogram, a procedure for determining whether a set of items forms a unidimensional scale.. . .
