Guidepost 1 How does the self-concept develop during early childhood, and how do children advance in understanding their emotions?

• The self-concept undergoes major changes in early childhood. According to neo-Piagetians, self-definition shifts from single representations to representational mappings. Young children do not see the difference between real self and the ideal self.
• Understanding of emotions directed toward the self and of simultaneous emotions develops gradually.

Guidepost 2 How do young children develop initiative and self-esteem?

• According to Erikson, the chief developmental crisis of early childhood is initiative versus guilt. Successful resolutions of the conflict results in the "virtue" of purpose.
• Self-esteem in early childhood tends to be global and unrealistic, reflecting adult approval. If self-esteem is contingent on success, children may develop a "helpless" pattern of thought and behavior.

Guidepost 3 How do boys and girls become aware of the meaning of gender, and what explains differences in behavior between the sexes?

• Gender identity is an important aspect of the developing self-concept.
• The main gender difference in early childhood is boys' greater aggressiveness. Girls tend to be more empathic and prosocial and less prone to problem behavior. Some cognitive differences appear early, others not until preadolescence or later.
• Children learn gender roles at an early age through gender typing. Gender stereotypes peak during the preschool years.
• Four major perspectives on gender development are the biological, psychoanalytic, cognitive, and socialization-based approaches.
• Evidence of difference in brain size and prenatal hormonal activity suggests that some gender differences may be biologically based.
• In Freudian theory, a child identifies with a the same-sex parent after giving up the wish to possess the other parent.
• Cognitive-development theory maintains that gender identity develops from thinking about one's gender.
• According to social cognitive theory, children learn gender roles through socialization: observation of models, reinforcement of gender-appropriate behavior, and internalization of standards. Parents, peers, and the culture influence gender-typing.

Guidepost 4 How do preschoolers play, and how does play contribute to and reflect development?

• Play has physical, cognitive, and psychological benefits. Changes in the types of play children engage in reflect cognitive and social development.
• According to Piaget and Smilansky, children progress cognitively from functional play to constructive play, pretend play, and then formal games with rules. Pretend play becomes increasingly common during early childhood and helps children develop social and cognitive skills. Rough-and-tumble play also begins during early childhood.
• According to Parten, play becomes more social during early childhood. However, later research has found that nonsocial play is not necessarily immature, depending on what children do when they play.
• Children prefer to play with (and play more socially with) others of their sex.
• Both the cognitive and social aspect of play are influenced by the culturally approved environments adults create for children.

Guidepost 5 How do parenting practices influence development?

• Discipline can be a powerful tool for socialization.
• Both positive reinforcement and prudently administered punishment can be appropriate tools of discipline within the context of a positive parent-child relationship.
• Power assertion, inductive techniques, and withdrawal of love can each be effective in certain situations. Reasoning is generally the most effective and power assertion the least effective in promoting internalization of parental standards. Spanking and other forms of corporal punishment can have negative consequences.
• Baumrind identified three childbearing styles: authoritarian, permissive, and authoritative. A fourth style, neglectful or uninvolved, was identified later. According to much research, authoritative parents tend to raise more competent children. However, Baumrind's findings may be misleading when applied to some cultures or socioeconomic groups.
• Family conflict can help children learn standards of behavior and negotiating skills.

Guidepost 6 Why do young children help or hurt others, and why do they develop fears?

• The roots of altruism and prosocial behavior appear early. This may be an inborn disposition, which can be cultivated by parental modeling and encouragement.
• Instrumental aggression--first physical, then verbal--is most common in early childhood.
• Most children become less aggressive after age 6 or 7, but the proportion of hostile aggression increases. Boys tend to practice overt aggression, whereas girls engage in relational aggression. Aggression may be influenced by the home and culture.
• Preschool children show temporary fears of real and imaginary objects and events; older children's fears tend to be more realistic. Some fears can be overcome by systematic desensitization.

Guidepost 7 How do young children get along with (or without) siblings?

• Siblings and peer relationships contribute to self-efficacy.
• Most sibling interactions are positive. Older siblings tend to initiate activities, and younger ones to imitate. Same-sex siblings, especially girls, get along best.
• Siblings tend to resolve disputes on the basis of moral principles. Parental intervention in sibling conflict, especially among younger siblings, may prevent worse conflicts down the line.
• The kind of relationship children have with siblings often carries over into other peer relationships.
• Only children seem to develop at least as well as children with siblings.

Guidepost 8 How do young children choose playmates and friends, and why are some children more popular than others?

• Preschoolers chose playmates and friends who are like them. Aggressive children are less popular than prosocial children.
• Friends have more positive and negative interactions than other playmates.
• Parenting can affect a child's social competence with peers.