Through social structure, society is organized into predictable relationships that facilitate social interaction. The transmission of culture and even the survival of society depend on social interaction. This chapter has presented the basic elements of social structure, from individual statuses and the social roles that go with them to groups, social networks, and social institutions. It has examined several theories of social structure and formal organizations, including bureaucracies.

1. An ascribed status is generally assigned to a person at birth, whereas an achieved status is attained largely through one's own effort. In the United States, ascribed statuses such as race and gender can function as master statuses that affect one's potential for achievement.

2. Much of our social behavior takes place within groups. When we find ourselves identifying closely with a group, it is probably a primary group. A secondary group is more formal and impersonal.

3. People tend to see the world in terms of in-groups (groups to which they belong) and out-groups (groups they do not belong to or identify with). Reference groups set and enforce standards of social conduct, allowing members to compare themselves to others.

4. Groups serve as links to social networks and their vast resources. Social institutions, such as government and the family, fulfill essential social functions that other groups cannot, such as preserving order and perpetuating society.

5. According to the conflict perspective, social institutions help to maintain the privileges of the powerful and the relative powerlessness of others. The interactionist perspective emphasizes that our social behavior is conditioned by the roles and statuses we accept, the groups to which we belong, and the institutions within which we function.

6. The sociologist Ferdinand Tönnies contrasted the close-knit type of community that characterizes rural life, which he called Gemeinschaft, with the impersonal type of mass society that characterizes urban life, which he called Gesellschaft.

7. In his theory of sociocultural evolution, Gerhard Lenski linked the historical development of societies to the technological advances they achieved. Lenski traced their evolution from primitive hunting-and-gathering societies to modern-day postindustrial and postmodern societies.

8. As societies have become more complex, large formal organizations and bureaucracies have become more powerful and pervasive.

9. Max Weber theorized that in its ideal type, every bureaucracy has five basic characteristics: division of labor, hierarchical authority, written rules and regulations, impersonality, and employment based on technical qualifications.

10. Both bureaucracy and technology have altered the workplace. While bureaucracy may have stifled individual initiative among workers, the recent development of networked personal computers is allowing many telecommuters to work at home with minimal supervision.