Conformity and deviance are two ways in which people respond to real or imagined pressure from others. This chapter examined the mechanisms of social control that society uses to encourage conformity to social norms. We defined deviance and offered several theories to explain its existence. The chapter closed with a discussion of crime and statistics on criminal activity in the United States and other nations.

1. Stanley Milgram defined conformity as going along with one's peers. Obedience, on the other hand, means compliance with higher authorities in a hierarchical structure.

2. Some norms are so important to a society, they are formalized in law. Socialization is the primary source of both conformity and obedience to law.

3. Deviance is behavior that violates any social norm, whether it concerns conduct or personal appearance. Some forms of deviance carry a negative social stigma, while others are more or less accepted.

4. The sociologist Robert Merton noted that people who engage in deviant behavior share many of the same goals and values as people who conform to social norms, though they may differ in the means by which they pursue their goals. Merton's theory is called the anomie theory of deviance.

5. The interactionist theorist Edwin Sutherland believed that people learn criminal behavior by associating with others, an approach called cultural transmission. In his theory of differential association, Sutherland proposed that deviance results from a person's exposure to individuals who approve of criminal acts.

6. Other interactionists stress that for a crime to occur, a motivated offender must come together with a vulnerable target during the course of their usual activities, an approach called routine activities theory.

7. Labeling theorists emphasize that society brands some people who engage in a behavior as deviant, but not others, based largely on a person's social class, race, or ethnicity. This theory of deviance is called the societal-reaction approach.

8. Conflict theorists stress that laws and the sanctions imposed on criminals for breaking them reflect the interests of the powerful. Feminists emphasize that in crimes involving women, such as rape and prostitution, crime is defined differently, and those involved are treated differently depending on their gender.

9. Crime is a violation of criminal law for which some governmental authority applies formal penalties. Sociologists differentiate among professional crime, organized crime, white-collar crime, and victimless crimes such as drug use and prostitution.

10. Crime statistics are among the least reliable social data, partly because many crimes are not reported to law enforcement agencies. Rates of violent crime are higher in the United States than in other Western societies.