| Motivation | Psychological forces that determine the direction of a person's behavior in an organization, a person's level of effort, and a person's level of persistence.
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| Intrinsically motivated behavior | Behavior that is performed for its own sake.
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| Extrinsically motivated behavior | Behavior that is performed to acquire material or social rewards or to avoid punishment.
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| Outcome | Anything a person gets from a job or organization.
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| Input | Anything a person contributes to his or her job or organization.
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| Expectancy theory | The theory that motivation will be high when workers believe that high levels of effort lead to high performance and high performance leads to the attainment of desired outcomes.
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| Expectancy | In expectancy theory, a perception about the extent to which effort results in a certain level of performance.
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| Instrumentality | In expectancy theory, a perception about the extent to which performance results in the attainment of outcomes.
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| Valence | In expectancy theory, how desirable each of the outcomes available from a job or organization is to a person.
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| Need | A requirement or necessity for survival and well-being.
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| Need theories | Theories of motivation that focus on what needs people are trying to satisfy at work and what outcomes will satisfy those needs.
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| ERG theory | The theory that three universal needs—existence, relatedness, and growth—constitute a hierarchy of needs and motivate behavior. Alderfer proposed that needs at more than one level can be motivational at the same time.
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| Herzberg's motivator-hygiene theory | A need theory that distinguishes between motivator needs (related to the nature of the work itself) and hygiene needs (related to the physical and psychological context in which the work is performed) and proposes that motivator needs must be met for motivation and job satisfaction to be high.
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| Need for achievement | The extent to which an individual has a strong desire to perform challenging tasks well and to meet personal standards for excellence.
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| Need for affiliation | The extent to which an individual is concerned about establishing and maintaining good interpersonal relations, being liked, and having other people around them get along with one another.
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| Need for power | The extent to which an individual desires to control or influence others.
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| Equity theory | A theory of motivation that focuses on people's perceptions of the fairness of their work outcomes relative to their work inputs.
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| Equity | The justice, impartiality, and fairness to which all organizational members are entitled.
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| Inequity | Lack of fairness.
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| Underpayment inequity | The inequity that exists when a person perceives that his or her own outcomeinput ratio is less than the ratio of a referent.
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| Overpayment inequity | The inequity that exists when a person perceives that his or her own outcome-input ratio is greater than the ratio of a referent.
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| Goal-setting theory | A theory that focuses on identifying the types of goals that are most effective in producing high levels of motivation and performance and explaining why goals have these effects.
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| Learning theories | Theories that focus on increasing employee motivation and performance by linking the outcomes that employees receive to the performance of desired behaviors and the attainment of goals.
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| Learning | A relatively permanent change in knowledge or behavior that results from practice or experience.
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| Operant conditioning theory | The theory that people learn to perform behaviors that lead to desired consequences and learn not to perform behaviors that lead to undesired consequences.
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| Positive reinforcement | Giving people outcomes they desire when they perform organizationally functional behaviors.
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| Negative reinforcement | Eliminating or removing undesired outcomes when people perform organizationally functional behaviors.
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| Extinction | Curtailing the performance of dysfunctional behaviors by eliminating whatever is reinforcing them.
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| Punishment | Administering an undesired or negative consequence when dysfunctional behavior occurs.
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| Organizational behavior modification (OB MOD) | The systematic application of operant conditioning techniques to promote the performance of organizationally functional behaviors and discourage the performance of dysfunctional behaviors.
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| Social learning theory | A theory that takes into account how learning and motivation are influenced by people's thoughts and beliefs and their observations of other people's behavior.
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| Vicarious learning | Learning that occurs when the learner becomes motivated to perform a behavior by watching another person perform it; also called observational learning.
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| Self-reinforcer | Any desired or attractive outcome or reward that a person gives to himself or herself for good performance.
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| Self-efficacy | A person's belief about his or her ability to perform a behavior successfully.
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| Merit pay plan | A compensation plan that bases pay on performance.
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| Employee stock option | A financial instrument that entitles the bearer to buy shares of an organization's stock at a certain price during a certain period of time or under certain conditions.
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