| Adapidae | (ah-da-pih-day) A group of early primates from the previously connected landmass of North America and Europe, dating to more than 50 mya and thought to be ancestral to prosimians such as lemurs and lorises.
|
 |
|
|
| Aegyptopithecus | (ee-gyp-tow-pith-ah-cuss) An extinct monkey genus with several apelike traits. Discovered in Egypt and dated at approximately 34 mya, it may represent a form of primate ancestral to Old World monkeys and apes.
|
|
|
|
| Ankarapithecus | (ahn-kah-rah-pith-ah-cuss) A fossil ape genus from Turkey dated at 9.8 mya. Shows similarities to Sivapithecus.
|
|
|
|
| Anthropoidea | (an-throw-poy-dee-ah) According to the traditional taxonomic system, one of the two suborders of order Primates (the other is Prosimii). Means "humanlike" and includes monkeys, apes, and humans.
|
|
|
|
| Ardipithecus ramidus kadabba | (ar-di-pith-ah-cuss rah-mi-dus kah-dah-bah) An earlier subspecies of Ard. ramidus ramidus from Ethiopia and dated at 5.2 to 5.8 mya; interpreted by some as bipedal. The subspecies name means "base family ancestor" in the Afar language.
|
|
|
|
| Ardipithecus ramidus ramidus | (ar-di-pith-ah-cuss rah-mi-dus rah-mi-dus) A recently identified hominid genus from Ethiopia and dated at about 4.4 mya, based on skeletal fragments and teeth. Not yet fully documented or accepted, it is thought by its discoverers to represent the earliest species in the hominid line; thus the species name, which means "root" in the local language.
|
|
|
|
| Australopithecus afarensis | (os-trail-oh-pith-ah-cuss ah-far-en-sis) A fossil species from East Africa, the oldest well-established species in the hominid line. Dated at 3.9 to 3 mya, afarensis had a small, chimp-sized brain but walked fully upright.
|
|
|
|
| Australopithecus africanus | (os-trail-oh-pith-ah-cuss ah-frih-cane-us) A fossil hominid species from South Africa dated from about 3 to 2.3 mya. It is similar to A. afarensis and may well be a direct evolutionary descendant of the earlier species. It retained the chimp-sized brain and was fully bipedal.
|
|
|
|
| Australopithecus anamensis | (os-trail-oh-pith-ah-cuss ana-men-sis) The earliest well-documented fully bipedal hominid, found in Kenya and dating from 4.2 to 3.8 mya.
|
|
|
|
| Australopithecus bahrelghazalia | (os-trail-oh-pith-ahcuss bar-el-gah-zahl-ya) A new species of this genus, based on a jaw and several teeth found in Chad and dated at 3.5 to 3 mya. The species name is derived from an Arabic name for a nearby riverbed. It is noteworthy as the only early hominid found outside of East Africa or southern Africa.
|
|
|
|
| Australopithecus garhi | (os-trail-oh-pith-ah-cuss gar- hee) Recently discovered fossils from Ethiopia, dated at 2.5 mya, that display resemblances to both Australopithecus afarensis and early Homo, leading some authorities to consider them a new species and a direct ancestor of Homo.
|
|
|
|
| Catarrhini | (cat-ah-rine-eye) One of two infraorders of suborder Anthropoidea (the other is infraorder Platyrrhini, the New World monkeys). Catarrhini is the infraorder of the Old World monkeys, apes, and hominids. Along with their geographic distinction, catarrhines can be distinguished from platyrrhines by their narrow nose shape, fewer premolar teeth, and lack of a prehensile tail.
|
|
|
|
| Cercopithecidae | (sir-co-pih-thee-sih-day) The family that includes all the Old World monkeys.
|
|
|
|
| Cercopithecoidea | (sir-co-pith-ah-coy-dee-ah) The superfamily of all monkeys of Europe, Africa, and Asia.
|
|
|
|
| Eosimiidae | (ee-oh-sim-ee-ih-day) A group of early primates from Asia, dated at around 45 mya, that may represent direct ancestors of monkeys, apes, and hominids.
|
|
|
|
| Equatorius | (ee-kwa-tor-ee-us) A fossil genus from East Africa dated at 15 mya and showing similarities in arm and ankle structure to the modern chimpanzee. Lumped by some authorities into Kenyapithecus.
|
|
|
|
| Gigantopithecus | ( ji-gan-tow-pith-ah-cuss) A genus of fossil apes, dated at 7 mya to perhaps as recently as 300,000 ya, found in China, India, and Vietnam. It may have reached a height of 12 feet when standing erect and weighed 1,200 pounds, making it the largest primate known.
|
|
|
|
| Gorilla gorilla | (guh-ril-ah guh-ril-ah) The gorilla (well, duh!), one of the three great ape species from Africa and the largest living primate.
|
|
|
|
| Gorillinae | (guh-ril-ih-nay) In a cladistic taxonomy, the subfamily for the gorilla, as distinct from Homininae.
|
|
|
|
| Haplorhini | (hap-low-rine-eye) According to the cladistic taxonomic system, one of two suborders of order Primates (the other is Strepsirhini). Haplorhini are primates lacking a moist nose and other primitive features. Includes the tarsier and all primates traditionally included in suborder Anthropoidea.
|
|
|
|
| Hominidae | (ho-mih-nih-day) In a traditional taxonomy, the family of modern and extinct human species, defined as the primates that are habitually bipedal. Members of this group are called hominids.
|
|
|
|
| Homininae | (ho-mih-nih-nay) In a cladistic taxonomy, a subfamily that includes chimpanzees, bonobos, and humans. (In such a taxonomy, Hominidae would include the African great apes and humans.)
|
|
|
|
| Hominini | (ho-mih-nih-nee) In a cladistic taxonomy, the tribe for humans.
|
|
|
|
| Hominoidea | (ho-min-oy-dee-ah) The superfamily that includes the large, tailless primates: apes and hominids, living and extinct.
|
|
|
|
| Homo antecessor | (ho-mow an-tee-sess-or) A recently proposed species from Spain and dated at 780,000 ya or more. The fossils show a mix of primitive and modern human features and are interpreted by their discoverers as possibly ancestral to H. heidelbergensis and H. neanderthalensis. This species is not widely recognized at presenst.
|
|
|
|
| Homo erectus | (ho-mow ee-reck-tuss) A fossil hominid species dating from at least 1.8 mya to 100,000 ya or so. First appearing in Africa, H. erectus was the first hominid species to expand beyond that continent. Fossils are found throughout Africa and Asia, and there is possible evidence in Europe. Members of this species, with an average brain size about two-thirds that of modern humans, made advances in stone tool technology and were able to control fire late in their existence.
|
|
|
|
| Homo ergaster | (ho-mow er-gas-ter) The earliest H. erectus fossils from Kenya, said by some researchers to be sufficiently different that they represent a separate species that was ancestral to both H. erectus and, later, H. sapiens.
|
|
|
|
| Homo habilis | (ho-mow hah-bill-us) Fossil hominid species dating from about 2.3 to 1.5 mya and found in East Africa and perhaps southern Africa. Fully bipedal and with an average brain size of 680 ml, H. habilis was the first confirmed hominid stone toolmaker. Because this was the first hominid with a brain larger than that of a chimpanzee, and because of the species’ association with stone tools, H. habilis is thought to be the earliest member of our genus, Homo.
|
|
|
|
| Homo heidelbergensis | (ho-mow high-del-berg-en-sis) A proposed species from Africa, Asia, and Europe, dated at between 475,000 and 200,000 ya. They had a modern human brain size but retained primitive features such as brow ridges, prognathism, and postorbital constriction.
|
|
|
|
| Homo neanderthalensis | (ho-mow nee-an-dir-tallen -sis) A proposed species from Europe and Southwest Asia, dated at between 225,000 and 36,000 ya. They had more pronounced versions of some of the cranial features of H. heidelbergensis, such as brow ridges and prognathism. The postcranial skeletons were robust and heavy, with short arms and legs, possibly adaptations to cold climates.
|
|
|
|
| Homo rudolfensis | (ho-mow rue-dolf-en-sis) Thought by some authorities to be a separate species made up of the East Turkana, Kenya, specimens traditionally placed in H. habilis.
|
|
|
|
| Homo sapiens | (ho-mow say-pee-ens) The taxonomic name for modern humans. There is debate as to whether or not this name covers certain other species, including H. erectus, ergaster, antecessor, heidelbergensis, and neanderthalensis.
|
|
|
|
| Hylobatidae | (high-low-bat-ah-day) The family that includes the gibbons and siamangs, the arboreal so-called lesser apes of Southeast Asia. They are highly efficient brachiators.
|
|
|
|
| Kenyanthropus platyops | (ken-yan-throw-pus plat- ee-ops) A new fossil genus from Kenya, dated at 3.5 mya and suggested by some authorities, because of its flat face and other features, to represent a better human ancestor than any species of Australopithecus. Thus far, it is based on only two specimens.
|
|
|
|
| Kenyapithecus | (ken-ya-pith-ah-cuss) A fossil genus from East Africa dated at 14 mya. A possible candidate for the first hominoid.
|
|
|
|
| Lufengpithecus | (lew-feng-pith-ah-cuss) A fossil pongid from Thailand, dated at 10 to 14.8 mya, suggested by some as an ancestor of modern orangutans.
|
|
|
|
| Morotopithecus | (more-row-tow-pith-ah-cuss) A fossil genus from Uganda dated at 20 mya. A possible candidate for the first hominoid, it may have been capable of occasional upright walking.
|
|
|
|
| Omomyidae | (oh-mow-me-ah-day) A group of early primates that lived in the previously connected landmass of North America and Europe. Dating to more than 50 mya, they are thought to be ancestral to tarsiers and may have been ancestral to Anthropoidea as well.
|
|
|
|
| Orrorin tugenensis | (or-or-in too-gen-en-sis) A new fossil genus from Kenya, based on thirteen specimens and dated at 5.6 to 6.2 mya. Its purported bipedal features have led some to suggest it represents the ancestor of all later hominids. The identity and features of this form are still a matter of much debate.
|
|
|
|
| Ouranopithecus | (oo-ran-oh-pith-ah-cuss) An ape from Greece dated at 9 to 10 mya. Based on some hominidlike features, it is thought by some to be a member of the ape line that led to the hominids.
|
|
|
|
| Panini | (pan-ih-nee) In a cladistic taxonomiy, the tribe that includes chimpanzees and bonobos.
|
|
|
|
| Pan paniscus | (pan pan-iss-cuss) The bonobo, sometimes called the pygmy chimpanzee. One of the three great ape species from Africa.
|
|
|
|
| Pan troglodytes | (pan trog-low-dye-tees) The chimpanzee. One of the three great ape species from Africa.
|
|
|
|
| Papio | (pah-pee-oh) A genus within superfamily Cercopithecoidea (the Old World monkeys) that comprises several species of baboons, large monkeys living in social groups on the African savannas.
|
|
|
|
| Paranthropus aethiopicus | (par-an-throw-puss eethee- oh-pih-cuss) A species from East Africa dating from 2.8 to 2.2 mya. They were the first members of the so-called robust early hominids, having large, rugged features associated with chewing, although other features, including their brain size, were very similar to those of genus Australopithecus. Many authorities still include it in that genus. It is thought they were adapted to tough, gritty, hard vegetable foods. The most famous, and first, specimen of this species was the "Black Skull."
|
|
|
|
| Paranthropus boisei | (par-an-throw-puss boys-ee-eye) The East African robust hominid, dated at 2.2 to 1 mya. It had large features associated with chewing, although less pronounced than in P. aethiopicus. The first specimen was "Zinjanthropus." Sometimes zincluded in genus Australopithecus.
|
|
|
|
| Paranthropus robustus | (par-an-throw-puss row-bus- tus) The southern African robust hominid, dated at 2.2 to 1.5 mya. It was marked by robust chewing features, although they were less robust than in either P. aethiopicus or P. boisei. The postcranial skeleton and the brain size remained similar to those of Australopithecus. It is sometimes included in that genus.
|
|
|
|
| Platyrrhini | (plat-ee-rine-eye) One of two infraorders of suborder Anthropoidea (the other is infraorder Catarrhini, the Old World monkeys, apes, and hominids). Platyrrhines comprise the New World monkeys. Members of this group can be told apart from the catarrhines by their broad nose shape, greater number of premolar teeth, and the fact that several species have prehensile tails.
|
|
|
|
| Plesiadapiformes | ( pleez-ee-ah-dah-pih-form-ees) A branch of archaic primates from sites in presentday North America that became extinct about 55 mya.
|
|
|
|
| Pongidae | (pon-jih-day) The family of the so-called great apes, the orangutans of Southeast Asia and the gorillas, chimpanzees, and bonobos of Africa.
|
|
|
|
| Pongo pygmaeus | (pon-go pig-may-us) The orangutan. The only great ape from Southeast Asia.
|
|
|
|
| Primates | (pry-mate-ees) An order within class Mammalia. Large-brained arboreal mammals with stereoscopic color vision and grasping hands (and sometimes feet). Includes prosimians, monkeys, apes, and hominids.
|
|
|
|
| Prosimii | (pro-sim-ee-eye) According to the traditional taxonomic system, one of two suborders of order Primates (the other suborder is Anthropoidea). Prosimians are the more primitive of the two suborders in that they retain features of some of the oldest primate fossils. Many lack color vision, are nocturnal, and have limited opposability of the thumb.
|
|
|
|
| Sahelanthropus tchadensis | (sah-hale-an-throw-puss chad-en-sis) A possible fossil hominid from Chad, dated at 7 to 6 mya. Despite some apelike features, it has other cranial features that some claim make it the earliest hominid.
|
|
|
|
| Sivapithecus | (she-vah-pith-ah-cuss) Genus of fossil ape from India and Pakistan, dated at 15 to 12 mya. Thought to be ancestral to the orangutan.
|
|
|
|
| Strepsirhini | (strep-sir-rine-eye) According to the cladistic taxonomic system, one of two suborders of order Primates (the other is Haplorhini). These primates have a moist nose and other primitive features. Includes all primates traditionally in suborder Prosimii except the tarsier.
|
|
|
|
| absolute dating technique | A dating method that gives a specific age, year, or range of years for an object or site. Compare with relative dating technique.
|
|
|
|
| Acheulian technique | A toolmaking tradition associated with Homo erectus/ergaster in Africa and Europe. Includes hand axes, cleavers, and flake tools.
|
|
|
|
| adaptation | The state in which an organism is adjusted to and can survive in its environment through its physical traits and behaviors. Also, the process by which an organism develops this state through natural processes.
|
|
|
|
| adaptive radiation | The evolution and spreading out of related species into new niches.
|
|
|
|
| allele frequency | The percentage of times a particular allele appears in a population. Another name, and the preferred term, for gene frequency.
|
|
|
|
| alleles | Variants of a gene. Most genes possess more than one possible allele, the different alleles conveying different instructions for the development of a certain phenotype (for example, different blood types).
|
|
|
|
| altruistic | Benefiting others without regard for one’s own needs or safety.
|
|
|
|
| amino acids | The chief components of proteins. Each "word" in the genetic code stands for a specific amino acid.
|
|
|
|
| analogies | Traits shared by two or more species that are similar in function but unrelated evolutionarily, for example, the wings of a bird and of an insect. Compare with homologies.
|
|
|
|
| anthropology | The holistic study of the human species. Anthropology includes the study of human biology, human physical evolution, human cultural evolution, and human adaptation.
|
|
|
|
| antibodies | Proteins in the immune system that react to foreign antigens.
|
|
|
|
| antigens | Substances, such as proteins, that can trigger an immune response, for example, the production of an antibody. The antigens of the ABO blood group system are examples.
|
|
|
|
| applied anthropology | Anthropology used to address current practical problems and concerns.
|
|
|
|
| arboreal | Adapted to life in the trees.
|
|
|
|
| archaeology | A subfield of anthropology that studies the human cultural past and the reconstruction of past cultural systems.
|
|
|
|
| argon/argon dating | A radiometric dating technique that uses the decay of radioactive argon into stable argon gas. Can be used to date smaller samples and volcanic rock with greater accuracy than potassium/argon dating. See also potassium/ argon dating.
|
|
|
|
| asexually | Reproducing without sex, by fissioning or budding. Compare with sexually.
|
|
|
|
| behavioral ecology | Another name for sociobiology.
|
|
|
|
| belief systems | Ideas that are taken on faith and cannot be scientifically tested. Examples are religions, philosophies, and ethical and moral beliefs. Compare with scientific method.
|
|
|
|
| bifacial | A stone tool that has been worked on both sides.
|
|
|
|
| bioanthropology | Another name for biological anthropology.
|
|
|
|
| biocultural | Focusing on the interaction of biology and culture.
|
|
|
|
| biological anthropology | A subfield of anthropology that studies humans as a biocultural species.
|
|
|
|
| biostratigraphy | The study of fossils in their stratigraphic context. Used as a relative dating technique.
|
|
|
|
| bipedal | Walking on two legs.
|
|
|
|
| bottleneck | A severe reduction in the size of a population or the founding of a new population by a
|
|
|
|
| brachiation | Locomotion by swinging arm-over-arm.
|
|
|
|
| breeding populations | Populations within a species that are genetically isolated to some degree from other populations.
|
|
|
|
| carnivore | An organism adapted to a diet of mostly meat. Compare with omnivore.
|
|
|
|
| catastrophists | Those who believe the history of the earth is explained by a series of global catastrophes, either natural or divine in origin. See also uniformitarianism.
|
|
|
|
| chromosomal mutations | Mutations of a whole chromosome or a large portion of a chromosome. Compare with point mutations.
|
|
|
|
| chromosomes | Strands of DNA in the nucleus of a cell.
|
|
|
|
| chronometric techniques | Another name for absolute dating techniques.
|
|
|
|
| cladistics | A classification system based on order of evolutionary branching rather than on present similarities and differences. Compare with phenetic taxonomy.
|
|
|
|
| cline | A geographic continuum in the variation of a particular trait.
|
|
|
|
| codominant | When both alleles of a pair are expressed in the phenotype.
|
|
|
|
| codon | The three-base sequence that codes for a specific amino acid. Technically, the sequence on the mRNA.
|
|
|
|
| comparative anatomy | Comparing the anatomical features of various species. Used to reconstruct a fossil species from fragmentary remains.
|
|
|
|
| competitive exclusion | When one species outcompetes others for the resources of a particular area.
|
|
|
|
| core tools | Tools made by taking flakes off a stone nucleus. See also flake tools.
|
|
|
|
| crossing over | When sections of chromosomes switch between chromosome pairs during meiosis. See also recombination.
|
|
|
|
| cultural anthropology | A subfield of anthropology that focuses on human cultural behavior and cultural systems and the variation in cultural expression among human groups.
|
|
|
|
| culture | Ideas and behaviors that are learned and shared. Also, the system made up of the sum total of these ideas and behaviors that is unique to a particular society of people. Nonbiological means of adaptation.
|
|
|
|
| Darwinian gradualism | The view, held by Darwin, that evolution is slow and steady with cumulative change. Compare with punctuated equilibrium.
|
|
|
|
| deduction | Suggesting specific data that would be found if a hypothesis were true, a step in the scientific method involving the testing of hypotheses. See also induction.
|
|
|
|
| demography | The study of the size and makeup of populations.
|
|
|
|
| deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) | The molecule that carries the genetic code.
|
|
|
|
| dermatoglyphics | The study of the parallel ridges and furrows on the fingers, palms, toes, and soles of the feet, commonly referred to as fingerprints, palm prints, and so on.
|
|
|
|
| distance curve | A graph that compares some variable at different points in time, for example, height and age. Compare with velocity curve.
|
|
|
|
| diurnal | Active during the day. Compare with nocturnal.
|
|
|
|
| DNA | See deoxyribonucleic acid.
|
|
|
|
| dominance hierarchy | A social pattern among animal species where there are recognized individual differences in power, influence, and access to resources and mating. Found in many primate species.
|
|
|
|
| dominant | The allele of a heterozygous pair that is expressed in the phenotype. Compare with recessive.
|
|
|
|
| electron spin resonance (ESR) dating | An absolute dating technique that measures the number of electrons excited to higher energy levels by natural radiation and trapped at those levels. Can be used to date tooth enamel, shells, corals, mineral cave deposits, and volcanic rock, but does not work well on bone.
|
|
|
|
| endocasts | Natural or human-made casts of the inside of a skull. The cast reflects the surface of the brain and allows us to study the brains of even extinct species.
|
|
|
|
| endogamy | Restricting marriage to members of the same culturally defined group.
|
|
|
|
| environmental | Any nongenetic influence on the phenotype. Also refers to the conditions under which an organism exists, such as climate, altitude, other species, food sources, and so on.
|
|
|
|
| enzymes | Proteins that control chemical processes.
|
|
|
|
| epidemiological | Pertaining to the study of disease outbreaks and epidemics.
|
|
|
|
| estrus | The period of female fertility or the signals indicating this condition.
|
|
|
|
| ethology | The study of the natural behavior of animals under natural conditions.
|
|
|
|
| evolution | Change through time, usually with reference to biological species, but may also refer to changes within cultural systems.
|
|
|
|
| evolutionary psychology | Another name for sociobiology.
|
|
|
|
| fission | A process of evolution that involves the splitting up of a population to form new populations.
|
|
|
|
| fitness | The relative adaptiveness of an individual organism, measured ultimately by reproductive success.
|
|
|
|
| flake tools | Tools made from the flakes removed from a stone core. See also core tools.
|
|
|
|
| folk taxonomies | Cultural categories for important items and ideas. Gender and race are examples of folk taxonomies.
|
|
|
|
| foramen magnum | The hole in the base of the skull through which the spinal cord emerges and around the outside of which the top vertebra articulates.
|
|
|
|
| forensic anthropologist | A scientist who applies anthropology to legal matters. Usually used with reference to the identification of skeletal remains and the assessment of time and cause of death.
|
|
|
|
| fossils | Remains of life-forms of the past.
|
|
|
|
| founder effect | A process of evolution. Genetic differences between populations produced by the fact that genetically different individuals established (founded) those populations.
|
|
|
|
| gametes | The cells of sexual reproduction, commonly sperm and egg, which contain only half the chromosomes of a normal cell.
|
|
|
|
| gamete sampling | A process of evolution. The genetic change caused when genes are passed to new generations in frequencies unrepresentative of those of the parental generation. An example of sampling error.
|
|
|
|
| gender | The cultural categories and characteristics of men and women. The translation of sex into a folk taxonomy. Compare with sex.
|
|
|
|
| gene flow | A process of evolution that involves the exchange of genes among populations through interbreeding.
|
|
|
|
| gene frequency | See allele frequency.
|
|
|
|
| gene pool | All the alleles in a population.
|
|
|
|
| generalized | Species that are adapted to a wide range of environmental niches. Such species tend to be genetically and physically variable. Compare with specialized.
|
|
|
|
| genes | Those portions of the DNA molecule that code for a functional product, usually a protein.
|
|
|
|
| genome | The total genetic endowment of an organism.
|
|
|
|
| genotypes | The alleles possessed by an organism. See also phenotype.
|
|
|
|
| glaciers | Massive sheets of ice that expand and move. Found on the polar ice caps and in mountains.
|
|
|
|
| grooming | Cleaning the fur of another animal, which promotes social cohesion. Common among primate groups.
|
|
|
|
| haft | To attach a wooden handle or shaft to a stone or bone point.
|
|
|
|
| half-life | The time needed for one-half of a given amount of a radioactive substance to decay.
|
|
|
|
| hand axe | A bifacial, all-purpose stone tool, shaped somewhat like an axe head. First invented by Homo erectus and usually associated with that species.
|
|
|
|
| heritability | The amount of variation of a particular trait within a population that is caused by genetic, as opposed to environmental, differences.
|
|
|
|
| heterozygous | Having two different alleles in a gene pair. Compare with homozygous.
|
|
|
|
| holistic | Assuming an interrelationship among the parts of a subject. Anthropology is a holistic discipline.
|
|
|
|
| hominids | Modern human beings and our ancestors, generally defined as the primates who habitually walk erect. Technically, the members of family Hominidae.
|
|
|
|
| homologies | Traits shared by two or more species through inheritance from a common ancestor. Such traits need not serve the same function. An example would be the arms of a human and the wings of a bat. We assume that many similar behaviors among humans and chimpanzees are also homologies. Compare with analogies.
|
|
|
|
| homozygous | Having two of the same allele in a gene pair. Compare with heterozygous.
|
|
|
|
| human ecology | A specialty of anthropology that studies the relationships between humans and their environments.
|
|
|
|
| hunter-gatherers | Societies that rely on naturally occurring sources of food. They have no domestic plants or animals except, perhaps, dogs.
|
|
|
|
| hypotheses | Educated guesses to explain natural phenomena. In the scientific method, hypotheses must be testable. See also theory.
|
|
|
|
| inclusive fitness | The idea that fitness is measured by the success of one’s genes, whether possessed by the individual or by that individual’s relatives.
|
|
|
|
| independent assortment | When genes on different chromosomes segregate to gametes independently of one another.
|
|
|
|
| induction | Developing a general explanation from specific observations. The step in the scientific method that generates hypotheses. See also deduction.
|
|
|
|
| inheritance of acquired characteristics | The incorrect idea, associated with Lamarck, that adaptive traits acquired during an organism’s lifetime can be passed on to its offspring.
|
|
|
|
| inorganic | A molecule not containing carbon. Compare with organic.
|
|
|
|
| intelligence | The relative ability of the brain to acquire, store, retrieve, and process information.
|
|
|
|
| intelligent design | The idea that an intelligent designer played a role in some aspect of the evolution of life on earth, usually the origin of life itself. Generally, a thinly disguised version of scientific creationism.
|
|
|
|
| knuckle walking | Walking on the backs of the knuckles of the hand, typical of the African apes.
|
|
|
|
| law of parsimony | A principle that relies on using the simplest explanation in formulating a scientific hypothesis. Another name for Ockham’s razor.
|
|
|
|
| Levallois technique | A tool technology involving striking uniform flakes from a prepared core. See core tools and flake tools.
|
|
|
|
| life history | The study of the timing of life cycle events such as fertility, growth, and death.
|
|
|
|
| linkage | When genes occur on the same chromosome and are inherited together.
|
|
|
|
| luminescence dating | An absolute dating technique that measures trapped electrons by releasing their energy in the form of light. Can be used to date fired clay, pottery, brick, and burnt stones. It may have some application in soil dating.
|
|
|
|
| macroevolution | The branching of new species from existing species.
|
|
|
|
| macromutations | Mutations with extensive and important phenotypic results. The mutations for sickle cell anemia and Down syndrome are examples.
|
|
|
|
| meiosis | The process of cell division in which gametes are produced, each gamete having one-half the normal complement of chromosomes and, therefore, only one allele of each original pair. See also mitosis.
|
|
|
|
| melanin | The pigment largely responsible for human skin color.
|
|
|
|
| melanocytes | Specialized skin cells that produce the pigment melanin.
|
|
|
|
| menarche | A woman’s first menstrual period.
|
|
|
|
| Mendelian genetics | The basic laws of inheritance discovered by Gregor Mendel in the nineteenth century.
|
|
|
|
| menopause | The end of a woman’s reproductive cycle.
|
|
|
|
| messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA) | The molecule that carries the genetic code out of the nucleus for translation into proteins. See also transfer RNA.
|
|
|
|
| microevolution | Evolutionary change within a single species through time.
|
|
|
|
| microsatellites | Long repetitious strings of noncoding DNA. Their length and the fact that they are not influenced by selection make them good genetic landmarks for DNA comparisons.
|
|
|
|
| mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) | The genetic material found in the cell’s mitochondria rather than in the cell’s nucleus. The mtDNA does not play a role in inheritance and thus may give a more accurate measure of the genetic differences among populations.
|
|
|
|
| mitosis | The process of cell division that results in two exact copies of the original cell. See also meiosis.
|
|
|
|
| monogenic | A trait coded for by a single gene. The ABO blood group system is a monogenic trait. Compare with polygenic.
|
|
|
|
| Mostly-Out-of-Africa model: | The hypothesis that Homo sapiens is about 2 million years old as a species but that most of the genetic variation and phenotypic features of modern humans have an African origin.
|
|
|
|
| Mousterian technique | A toolmaking tradition associated with the European Neandertals.
|
|
|
|
| Multiregional Evolution (MRE) model | The hypothesis that Homo sapiens is about 2 million years old and that modern human traits evolved in geographically diverse locations and then spread through the species. Compare with Recent African Origin model.
|
|
|
|
| mutation | Any mistake in an organism’s genetic code.
|
|
|
|
| natural selection | Evolutionary change based on the differential reproductive success of individuals within a species.
|
|
|
|
| niche | The environment of an organism and its adaptive response to that environment.
|
|
|
|
| nocturnal | Active at night. Compare with diurnal.
|
|
|
|
| notochord | A stiff cartilaginous rod that supports the body and protects the dorsal nerve. The evolutionary precursor of the vertebral column.
|
|
|
|
| nuclear DNA | The genetic material in the nucleus of a cell.
|
|
|
|
| nucleotide | The basic building block of DNA and RNA, made up of a sugar, a phosphate, and one of four bases.
|
|
|
|
| Oldowan | A toolmaking tradition from Africa associated with early Homo.
|
|
|
|
| omnivore | An organism with a mixed diet of animal and vegetable foods. Compare with carnivore.
|
|
|
|
| opposability | The ability to touch (oppose) the thumb to the tips of the other fingers on the same hand.
|
|
|
|
| organic | Molecules that are part of living organisms. They are based on the chemistry of carbon and contain mostly hydrogen, oxygen, carbon, and nitrogen. Even carbon-based molecules that are not found in living things are sometimes referred to as organic. Compare with inorganic.
|
|
|
|
| oscillating selection | Adaptive variation around a norm, rather than in one direction, in response to environmental variation in a species’ habitat.
|
|
|
|
| osteology | The study of the structure, function, and evolution of the skeleton.
|
|
|
|
| Out-of-Africa model | Another name for the Recent African Origin model.
|
|
|
|
| paleoanthropology | A specialty that studies the human fossil record.
|
|
|
|
| paleopathology | The study of disease and nutritional deficiency in prehistoric populations, usually through the examination of skeletal material.
|
|
|
|
| Pangea | The supercontinent that included parts of all present-day landmasses. It formed around 280 mya and began breaking up around 200 mya.
|
|
|
|
| particulate | The idea that biological traits are controlled by individual factors rather than by a single all-encompassing hereditary agent.
|
|
|
|
| petrified | Turned to stone. As the organic material of a fossil decays, it is slowly replaced by minerals, leaving a cast in stone of the organism or some of its parts.
|
|
|
|
| phenetic taxonomy | A classification system based on existing phenotypic features and adaptations. Compare with cladistics.
|
|
|
|
| phenotype | The chemical or physical results of the genetic code. See also genotypes.
|
|
|
|
| photosynthesis | The process by which plants manufacture their own nutrients from carbon dioxide and water, using chlorophyll as a catalyst and sunlight as an energy source.
|
|
|
|
| physical anthropology | The traditional name for biological anthropology.
|
|
|
|
| plate tectonics | The movement of the plates of the earth’s crust, caused by their interaction with the molten rock of the earth’s interior. The cause of continental drift.
|
|
|
|
| Pleistocene | The geological time period, from 1.6 mya to 10,000 ya, characterized by a series of glacial advances and retreats. See glaciers.
|
|
|
|
| point mutations | Mutations of a single base of a codon. The mutation that causes sickle cell anemia is an example. Compare with chromosomal mutations.
|
|
|
|
| polygenic | A trait coded for by more than one gene. Skin color is a polygenic trait. Compare with monogenic.
|
|
|
|
| polymorphisms | Variations in the genetic code within a species.
|
|
|
|
| polytypic | A species with physically distinguishable regional populations.
|
|
|
|
| postnatal dependency | The period after birth during which offspring require the care of adults to survive.
|
|
|
|
| postorbital constriction | A narrowing of the skull behind the eyes, as viewed from above.
|
|
|
|
| potassium/argon (K/Ar) dating | A radiometric dating technique using the rate at which radioactive potassium, found in volcanic rock, decays into stable argon gas. See also argon/argon dating.
|
|
|
|
| prehensile | Having the ability to grasp.
|
|
|
|
| primates | Large-brained, mostly tree-dwelling mammals with three-dimensional color vision and grasping hands. Humans are primates.
|
|
|
|
| primatology | A specialty of anthropology that studies nonhuman primates.
|
|
|
|
| prognathism | The jutting forward of the lower face and jaw area.
|
|
|
|
| progressive | In evolution, the now-discounted idea that all change is toward increasing complexity.
|
|
|
|
| prosimian | A primate with primitive features, most closely resembling the ancient primates.
|
|
|
|
| proteins | Molecules that make cells and carry out cellular functions. Proteins are made of amino acids.
|
|
|
|
| protein synthesis | The process by which the genetic code puts together proteins in the cell.
|
|
|
|
| provenience | The precise location where a fossil or artifact was found.
|
|
|
|
| pseudoscience | Scientifically testable ideas that are taken on faith, even if tested and shown to be false. Scientific creationism is a pseudoscience.
|
|
|
|
| punctuated equilibrium | The view that species tend to remain stable and that evolutionary changes occur fairly suddenly through the evolution of new species branching from existing ones. Compare with Darwinian gradualism.
|
|
|
|
| quadrupedal | Walking on all four limbs.
|
|
|
|
| races | In biology, the same as subspecies. In culture, cultural categories to classify and account for human diversity; see folk taxonomy.
|
|
|
|
| racism | Judging an individual based solely on his or her racial affiliation.
|
|
|
|
| radiocarbon dating | A radiometric dating technique using the decay rate of a radioactive form of carbon found in organic remains.
|
|
|
|
| radiometric | Referring to the decay rate of a radioactive substance. See argon/argon dating; radiocarbon dating; and potassium/argon dating.
|
|
|
|
| Recent African Origin (RAO) model | The hypothesis that Homo sapiens recently evolved as a separate species in Africa and then spread to replace more archaic populations. Compare with Multiregional Evolution model.
|
|
|
|
| recessive | The allele of a heterozygous pair that is not expressed. For a recessive allele to be expressed it must be homozygous. Compare with dominant.
|
|
|
|
| recombination | The exchange of genetic material between pairs of chromosomes during meiosis. An important source of genetic variation. See also crossing over.
|
|
|
|
| reification | Translating a complex set of phenomena into a single entity such as a number. IQ test scores are an example.
|
|
|
|
| relative dating technique | A dating method that indicates the age of one item in comparison to another. Stratigraphy provides relative dates by indicating that one layer is older or younger than another. Compare with absolute dating technique.
|
|
|
|
| replication | The copying of the genetic code during cell division.
|
|
|
|
| reproductive isolating mechanism | Any difference that prevents the production of fertile offspring between members of two populations. Necessary for the production of separate species.
|
|
|
|
| reproductive strategies | Behaviors that evolve to maximize an individual’s reproductive success.
|
|
|
|
| RNA | See messenger RNA and transfer RNA.
|
|
|
|
| sagittal crest | A ridge of bone, running from front to back along the top of the skull, for the attachment of chewing muscles.
|
|
|
|
| sagittal keel | A sloping of the sides of the skull toward the top, as viewed from the front.
|
|
|
|
| sampling error | When a sample chosen for study does not accurately represent the population from which the sample was taken. See gamete sampling.
|
|
|
|
| savanna | The open grasslands of the tropics. The savannas of Africa are important in early hominid evolution.
|
|
|
|
| science | The method of inquiry that requires the generation, testing, and acceptance or rejection of hypotheses.
|
|
|
|
| scientific creationism | The belief in a literal biblical interpretation regarding the creation of the universe, with the connected belief that this view is supported by scientific evidence. An example of a pseudoscience.
|
|
|
|
| scientific method | The process of conducting scientific inquiry. See science.
|
|
|
|
| segregation | In genetics, the breaking up of allele pairs in the production of gametes.
|
|
|
|
| semispecies | Populations of a species that are completely isolated from one another but have not yet become truly different species.
|
|
|
|
| sex | The biological categories and characteristics of males and females. Compare with gender.
|
|
|
|
| sexual dimorphism | Physical differences between the sexes of a species not related to reproductive features. See sex.
|
|
|
|
| sexually | Reproducing by combining genetic material from two individuals. Compare with asexually.
|
|
|
|
| shared derived characteristics | Phenotypic features shared by two or more taxonomic groups that are derived from a common ancestor and that are not found in other groups.
|
|
|
|
| single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) | A single base pair of the genetic code that displays variable expressions among individuals.
|
|
|
|
| sites | Locations that contain fossil and archaeological evidence of human presence.
|
|
|
|
| sociobiology | The scientific study that examines evolutionary explanations for social behaviors within species.
|
|
|
|
| specialized | Species that are adapted to a narrow range of environmental niches. Compare with generalized.
|
|
|
|
| speciation | The evolution of new species.
|
|
|
|
| species | A group of organisms that can produce fertile offspring among themselves but not with members of other groups. A closed genetic population, usually physically distinguishable from other populations.
|
|
|
|
| stereoscopic vision | Three-dimensional vision; depth perception.
|
|
|
|
| strata | Layers; here, the layers of rock and soil under the earth’s surface. Singular, stratum.
|
|
|
|
| stratigraphy | The study of the earth’s strata.
|
|
|
|
| subspecies | Physically distinguishable populations within a species. See races.
|
|
|
|
| superposition | The principle of stratigraphy that, barring disturbances, more recent layers are superimposed over older ones.
|
|
|
|
| symbiosis | An adaptive relationship between two different species, often, but not necessarily, of mutual benefit.
|
|
|
|
| symbolic | A communication system that uses arbitrary but agreed-upon sounds and signs for meaning.
|
|
|
|
| systematists | Another name for taxonomists.
|
|
|
|
| taphonomy | The study of how organisms become part of the paleontological record—how fossils form and what processes affect them through time.
|
|
|
|
| taxa | Categories within a taxonomic classification; singular, taxon. See taxonomy.
|
|
|
|
| taxonomists | Scientists who classify and name living organisms.
|
|
|
|
| taxonomy | A classification based on similarities and differences. In biology, the science of categorizing organisms and of naming them so as to re- flect their relationships. Compare with cladistics, and see phenetic taxonomy.
|
|
|
|
| theory | A well-supported general idea that explains a large set of factual patterns. In science, theory is a positive term.
|
|
|
|
| torus | A bony ridge at the back of the skull, where the neck muscles attach.
|
|
|
|
| transcription | The process during which mRNA is formed from the DNA code.
|
|
|
|
| transfer ribonucleic acid (tRNA) | RNA that lines up amino acids along mRNA to make proteins. See also messenger RNA.
|
|
|
|
| translation | The process during which the mRNA code builds a protein using amino acids supplied by tRNA.
|
|
|
|
| trephination | Cutting a hole in the skull, presumably to treat some illness, a practice within some societies with prescientific knowledge.
|
|
|
|
| tundra | A treeless area with low-growing vegetation and permanently frozen ground. Located in the Arctic today, tundras were found during the Pleistocene in the vicinity of glaciers far to the south.
|
|
|
|
| uniformitarianism | The idea that present-day geological and biological processes can also explain the history of the earth and its life. See also catastrophists.
|
|
|
|
| velocity curve | A graph that compares the rate of change in some variable at different points in time, for example, rate of growth at different ages. Compare with distance curve.
|
|
|
|
| vertebrates | Organisms with backbones and internal skeletons.
|
|
|
|
| zygote | The fertilized egg before cell division begins.
|