WHAT ARE THE FOUNDATIONS OF LEARNING DISABILITIES?

• Learning disabilities had its origins firmly implanted within the medical model. (p. 94-95)
• Four historical periods of learning disabilities have been suggested: foundational, transitional, integration, and current phases. (p. 94-96)
• The term learning disability was coined in the early 1960s by Sam Kirk. (p. 95)
• Learning disabilities, as a formal field, is relatively new. (p. 96)

• The IDEA 04s definition of learning disabilities identifies areas in which a disorder can be manifested as well as inclusionary and exclusionary criteria. (p. 96)
• An alternate definition of learning disabilities was proposed by the National Joint Committee on Learning Disabilities. (p. 96-97)

• Estimates vary although approximately 5% of the school-age population are receiving services for learning disabilities and represent almost half of all students with disabilities. (p. 97)
• Factors such as gender, ethnic background, and geographic region affect the prevalence rate. (p. 97)

WHAT ARE THE CAUSES AND CHARACTERISTICS OF LEARNING DISABILITIES?

• Problems related to the central nervous system are implicit in the definition of learning disabilities. These could be due to brain injury, brain development, or brain structure. (p. 98)
• There are some data from twin studies to support hereditary causes of learning disabilities. (p. 98)
• Prenatal factors such as maternal alcohol and drug consumption; perinatal factors such as birth trauma; and postnatal causes such as lead poisoning may be involved in children with learning disabilities. (p. 98-99)

• In 1966, a Task Force reported the ten most commonly mentioned characteristics that were mainly related to neurological aspects. (p. 99)
• Reading is the most frequent academic problem; estimates as high as 90% of students with learning disabilities have problems in this area. (p. 99-101)
• Problems with math computation, math concepts, number facts, problem solving, etc., are relatively common. (p. 101)
• Some students have problems in handwriting, spelling, and written expression. (p. 101-02)
• Students might have problems in all the components of language—phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, pragmatics. (p. 102)
• Cognitive problems include attention problems, memory problems (particularly short-term and working memory), and metacognitive deficits. (p. 102-03)
• Social/emotional characteristics might include social skills deficits, poor self-concept, and learned helplessness. (p. 103-04)

HOW ARE STUDENTS WITH LEARNING DISABILITIES IDENTIFIED?

• The first steps in the assessment process are initial identification, pre-referral assessment, and pre-referral intervention. (p. 104)
• IDEA 04 allows a student’s response to intervention to be considered in eligibility decisions. (p. 105-06)
• Standardized tests, including intelligence tests and achievement tests, are typically used to help make eligibility decisions. (p. 106-07)
• Other tests that are frequently used measure process skills, language, and specific academic skills. (p. 107)

WHAT AND HOW DO I TEACH STUDENTS WITH LEARNING DISABILITIES?

• Students with learning disabilities typically participate in the general curriculum. (p. 108)
• Understanding of and ability to use declarative, procedural, and conditional knowledge should be confirmed. (p. 108-09)
• Additional skill development may be needed in reading, written language, mathematics, and study skills. (p. 109-112)
• Reading instruction should include both decoding and comprehension strategies. (p. 109-111)
• Explicitly teaching writing skills can lead to students being able to write more reflective, complex, and well-written essays. (p. 111)
• Mathematics instruction should include mathematical computation and problem-solving strategies. (p. 111)
• Study skills that may need to be taught include listening, note taking, time management, comprehending, textbook usage, memory strategies, test taking and report writing. (p. 111-12)
• Transition plans should assist students with the development of goal setting and self-advocacy skills. (p. 112)

• Structure and routines are important in teaching students with learning disabilities. (p. 112-13)
• Effective procedures include task analysis, direct instruction (explicit teaching), cognitive and metacognitive strategies, and attribution retraining. (p. 113-18)
• Effective instruction for English-language learners includes specific instructional practices and specific teacher behaviors that enhance learning. (p. 118-19)

WHAT ARE OTHER INSTRUCTIONAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR STUDENTS WITH LEARNING DISABILITIES?

• Reduce congestion in high traffic areas, make sure the teacher can see all students, make frequently used materials and supplies easily accessible, and make sure all students can see whole-class presentations. (p. 120)
• For young children, develop a well designed, structured environment that encourages play and communication. (p. 120)
• Structure and routine continue to be important in elementary and secondary programs. (p. 120)
• A number of grouping options are available and flexibility is important. Small-group instruction appears to be preferable to one-to-one instruction. (p. 120-22)
• Instructional grouping can powerfully influence the levels of individual student engagement. (p. 120-22)
• Flexible small groups may be preferable. (p. 121-22)

• Assistive technology adaptations can be imperative for academic success. (p. 122-26)
• Computer programs have been shown to positively affect the skills of preschool and kindergarten children. (p. 123)
• Assistive technology can make initial teaching presentations, as well as subsequent drill, exciting to students who are often turned off by traditional class work. (p. 124-26)
• Tape recorders and language masters can increase involvement in learning. (p. 124)
• Overhead projectors can make a lesson enjoyable and allow the teacher to maintain eye contact. (p. 124)
• Computers can be used in many ways, including drill and practice, tutoring, instructional games, research, writing, and problem solving. (p. 124-26)
• Well designed, time efficient computer-mediated instruction should be included when designing material and instruction for adolescents with learning disabilities. (p. 126-27)

WHAT ARE SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR THE GENERAL EDUCATOR?

• Providing access to the general education curriculum may require accommodations, adaptations, parallel curriculum outcomes, and/or overlapping curriculum goals. (p. 127-29)