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WHAT ARE THE FOUNDATIONS OF INTELLECTUAL DISABILITIES/MENTAL RETARDATION?

History

• In the nineteenth century, hospitals and institutions provided treatment for those with intellectual disabilities in the U.S. (p. 136-37)
• In the late 19^th and early 20^th centuries, Social Darwinism and eugenics led to a view of people with intellectual disabilities as inferior and undesirable members of society. (p. 137)
• The principle of "normalization" led to the belief that individuals with intellectual disabilities should go to school and live in environments with peers without disabilities. (p. 137)
• Advocacy organizations as The ARC were instrumental in bringing about legislation such as the IDEA when it was first enacted in 1975. (p. 137)

Definition

• The term mental retardation has been recently replaced by the term intellectual disabilities by major organizations in the field, although mental retardation is still used in the federal definition of the disability. (p. 137-38)
• The IDEA 04 definition of mental retardation contains four key components: subaverage intelligence, deficits in adaptive behavior, emergence of characteristics before the age of 18, and resulting in an adverse affect on academic performance. (p. 138)
• A definition published by the American Association on Mental Retardation is also widely used in the field. It states that mental retardation is a disability that emerges before the age of 18 and is characterized by limitations in intellectual functioning and adaptive behavior. (p. 138)

Classification

• Classification by severity or degree uses IQ to classify individuals into categories of mild, moderate, severe, and profound mental retardation. (p. 139)
• Classification by levels of support needed at a specific point in time, environment, or situation include intermittent, limited, extensive, and pervasive supports. (p. 139-40)
• Intellectual disabilities are viewed as conditions that can change over time and circumstances. (p. 139)

Prevalence

• It is estimated that the prevalence of mental retardation is about 1% of the population or 1 in 100 school children. (p. 140)
• There is overrepresentation of African Americans in classes for students with mental retardation and more males are identified with mental retardation than females, regardless of race. (p. 140)

WHAT ARE THE CAUSES AND CHARACTERISTICS OF INTELLECTUAL DISABILITIES/MENTAL RETARDATION?

Causes

• Recognized causes of intellectual disabilities are grouped as biomedical, environmental, and psychosocial. In many cases, the cause of one's intellectual disability is never determined. (p. 141)
• Biomedical causes can be prenatal, perinatal, or postnatal in origin. (p. 141)
• Genetic causes (such as chromosomal abnormalities) are prenatal in origin. (p. 141)
• Environmental causes can occur prenatally, perinatally, or postnatally and include such factors as infections, anoxia, and disease among others. (p. 142)
• Psychosocial factors (such as low socioeconomic status) are associated with a risk of, but do not necessarily result in, intellectual disabilities. For example, low socioeconomic status could lead to poor nutrition and health care. (p. 142-43)
• Psychosocial factors can be used to identify those in need of early intervention services to prevent intellectual disabilities. (p. 142-43)
• Prevention may occur through better understanding and treatment of human genetic conditions, prenatal testing, and early intervention. (p. 143)

Characteristics

• Students with an intellectual disability can have difficulty attending to a task, and with developing learning strategies, and categorizing, academics, memory, transfer and generalization, and language. (p. 144)
• Students may have difficulty directing and maintaining attention. (p. 144)
• Academic problems, including reading and math comprehension, are common. (p. 144)
• Achievement is often well below that of peers without disabilities but can be learned, especially when used in functional skill activities. (p. 144-45)
• Long term memory tends to be less affected than short term memory skills. (p. 145)
• Working memory and rehearsal deficits are evident, but these skills can be improved with instruction. (p. 145)
• Problems with transfer and generalization of skills are often evident. Transfer and generalization make the application of knowledge and skills to new situations a challenge. Teaching skills in a variety of settings and situations can help with transfer and generalization. (p. 145)
• Language development is often delayed; speech disorders are more common than among students without disabilities. (p. 145)
• Students with intellectual disabilities may have limited social relationships with peers without disabilities. A social network is important to quality of life. Relationships can be encouraged through interactions and education of both students with intellectual disabilities and those without disabilities. (p. 146-47)

HOW ARE STUDENTS WITH INTELLECTUAL DISABILITIES/MENTAL RETARDATION IDENTIFIED?

• Intelligence tests are still frequently used to identify students with mental retardation/intellectual disabilities despite the limitations associated with IQ scores. IQs are not permanent and do not include all variables that affect growth and achievement. (p. 148)
• Adaptive behavior scales are used to establish how well a student with intellectual disabilities adjusts at school, at home, and in the community. (p. 148)
• Academic skills are assessed because identification of intellectual disabilities requires that the condition adversely affect educational performance. (p. 148-49)

WHAT AND HOW DO I TEACH STUDENTS WITH INTELLECTUAL DISABILITIES/MENTAL RETARDATION?

• Most students with intellectual disabilities will spend at least part of their schooling in general education, particularly in the younger grades. (p. 149)

Instructional Content

• Access to general education curriculum has increased. For some students, other skills instruction may replace or overlap the general education curriculum. (p. 149-50)
• Students with intellectual disabilities can learn the academic skills of reading and writing. Their learning potential should never be underestimated. (p. 150-51)
• As students get older, many will need to learn functional academics. (p. 151-52)
• Students with moderate disabilities, and many with mild disabilities, require instruction in life skills, or life management. (p. 152)
• Self-determination and self-advocacy skills should be included in the curriculum beginning at an early age. (p. 153-54)
• Community-based instruction involving vocational education and work-study programs should be available at the secondary level. (p. 154)
• Transition planning should focus not only on employment and postsecondary education but also on student independence in the community, involvement in the community, and personal and social relationships. Self-determination and self-advocacy must be a part of this. (p. 155)

Instructional Procedures

• Procedures should increase opportunities for learning and reduce chances of error. (p. 156)
• Direct/explicit instruction and task analysis will be required. (p. 156)
• Sequencing learning can be enhanced by manipulating three hierarchical levels of difficulty: recognition, recall, and reconstruction. (p. 156)
• Additional emphasis should be placed on the analysis and careful application of antecedent variables in teaching presentation and practice. (p. 157-58)
• An important antecedent variable in teaching and practice is the use of prompts, or additional cues. (p. 157-58)
• Generalization programming will also need additional emphasis. (p. 158)

WHAT ARE OTHER INSTRUCTIONAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR STUDENTS WITH INTELLECTUAL DISABILITIES/MENTAL RETARDATION?

Instructional Environment

• The physical arrangement of the preschool classroom must be well planned with highly structured routines provided in natural environments. (p. 159-60)
• Elementary school programs are often within the typical general education classroom. (p. 160)
• Classroom arrangement for secondary students should be business-like, and instruction may even take place within the community for all or part of the day. (p. 160)
• One-to-one instruction should not be viewed as the only possible method of teaching. Small group instruction offers several advantages over one-to-one instruction. (p. 160)
• Cooperative learning can produce positive educational, social, and emotional benefits. (p. 161)
• Structured peer tutoring can be successful across grade and subject areas. (p. 162)
• Whole group instruction is most common and may require teaching students specific self-regulation techniques and the use of many comprehension checks. (p. 162-63)

Instructional Technology

• The use of technology can increase independence, productivity, self-esteem, and self- determination of individuals with intellectual disabilities . (p. 163)
• Assistive technology may be used to remove barriers or adapt curriculum. (p. 163-64)
• Many software programs allow teachers to adjust assignments based on students' needs. (p. 164)
• Technology can enhance life beyond school in social contacts, business and consumer resources, recreation and leisure, and career exploration. (p. 164-65)
• Cultural sensitivity is needed when working with families in the selection of assistive technology. (p. 165)

WHAT ARE SOME SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR THE GENERAL EDUCATION TEACHER?

• The role of general educators has greatly increased. At times, the general educator may be responsible for a large amount, or all of, instruction. (p. 166-67)
• Collaboration and assistance of general educators is necessary for successful inclusion. There are several integration options that have proven successful. (p. 167)
• Both general educators and special educators should approach these students with high expectations for success. (p. 167)
• All students benefit from well-designed and explicitly taught skills, and there are many aspects of a curriculum for students with intellectual disabilities which may benefit students without disabilities. (p. 168)
• Inclusive service-learning activities, in which students with and without disabilities work together to apply their learning to a service activity within the community, are beneficial for all. (p. 168)