Glossary (See related pages) Aaron   In the Hebrew Bible, the brother of Moses and first High Priest of Israel (Exod. 4:14; 6:20, 26; Lev. 8; Num. 3:1–3). In the Book of Hebrews, the High Priest's function is said to foreshadow that of Christ (Heb. 5:1–4; 8:1–10:18). Abba   The Aramaic word for "father," used by Jesus and other early Christians to address God (Mark 14:36; Rom. 8:15; Gal. 4:6). Abraham   The founder of the Hebrew nation. In Genesis 12–24, Abraham (at first called Abram, meaning "exalted father") is the supreme example of obedience to Yahweh. All Jews were believed to be Abraham's descendants through his son Isaac. Alexander the Great   Son of King Philip of Macedonia and conqueror of most of the known world. Alexander (356–323 BCE) united Greece and the vast territories of the Persian Empire as far east as India. The period of cultural assimilation and synthesis inaugurated by his conquests is called Hellenistic. Alexandria   A major port city and cultural center founded by Alexander on the Egyptian coast. The home of a large Jewish colony during the Hellenistic period, Alexandria nourished a fusion of Jewish and Greek ideas, one result of which was the Greek Septuagint translation of the Hebrew Bible (begun about 250 BCE). allegory   A literary narrative in which persons, places, and events are given a symbolic meaning. Some Hellenistic-Jewish scholars, like Philo of Alexandria, interpreted the Hebrew Bible allegorically, as Paul does the story of Abraham, Sarah, and Hagar (Gal. 4:21–31). angel   A spirit being commonly regarded in biblical times as serving God by communicating his will to humanity (Luke 1–2; Matt. 1); from a Greek word meaning "messenger." Annas   A former High Priest before whom Jesus was brought for trial ( John 18:13). Annas was father-in-law to Caiaphas, then the reigning High Priest (see also Luke 3:2 and Acts 4:6). anti-Christ   The ultimate enemy of Jesus Christ, who, according to Christian apocalyptic traditions, will manifest himself at the End of time to corrupt many of the faithful, only to be vanquished at Christ's Second Coming. The term appears only in 2 and 3 John but is clearly referred to in 2 Thessalonians (2:1–2) and Revelation 13. antinomianism   The belief and practice of certain early Christian groups who argued that faith in Christ absolves the believer from obeying moral laws; literally, "opponents of law." Paul attacks this libertarian attitude in Galatians (5:13–6:10; see also 1 and 2 John). Antioch   1. In Syria, the capital of the Macedonian Seleucid kings and, under Roman rule, a province of the same name. According to Acts, the first predominantly Gentile church was founded in Antioch (Acts 11:20, 21), where followers of "the way" were first called Christians (Acts 11:26). Paul began all three of his missionary tours from here. 2. Pisidian Antioch, a major city in Galatia (in Asia Minor); also the site of an important early church, founded by Paul and Barnabas (Acts 13:14–50). Antiochus   The name of several Syrian monarchs who inherited power from Seleucus I, a general and successor of Alexander the Great. The most famous were Antiochus III, who gained control of Palestine in 198–197 BCE, and Antiochus IV (Epiphanes, or "God Manifest") (175–163 BCE), whose persecution of the Jews led to the Maccabean Revolt. Antipater   A nobleman (c. 100–43 BCE) of Idumea and father of Herod the Great who intervened in Judean politics and fostered alliances with Rome. antitheses   The section of Matthew's Sermon on the Mount (Matt. 5:21–48) in which Jesus contrasts selected provisions of the Mosaic Torah with his own ethical directives. The term refers to a rhetorical structure in which contrasting ideas are presented in parallel arrangements of words, phrases, or sentences. aphorism   A terse, memorable statement that expresses a (commonly ignored) truth about human experience. Jesus frequently spoke in aphorisms, proverb-like sayings that were typically concise, vivid, and paradoxical. apocalypse   A disclosure (vision) of spiritual realities or truths that are normally hidden—in the future or in the invisible world of spirit beings; from the Greek apokalypsis, meaning "to uncover," "to reveal." apocalyptic literature   1. A body of Hellenistic-Jewish writings produced between about 300 BCE and 200 CE, including canonical works such as Daniel and non-canonical books such as 1 and 2 Enoch and 2 and 3 Baruch. These visionary books purport to reveal spiritual realities hidden from ordinary eyes, typically predicting future catastrophes heralding the defeat of God's enemies and the ultimate triumph of Israel. 2. Apocalyptic themes dominate much of early Christian literature, including Paul's letters, the Synoptic Gospels, 2 Peter, and Revelation, all of which emphasize Christ's role as God's eschatological agent. apocalypticism   A belief that God, through visions to chosen seers or prophets, reveals his hitherto hidden purpose for humanity, particularly his plan to bring human history to a cataclysmic End in a final climactic battle between both material and spiritual forces of Good and Evil. Apollos   A Hellenistic Jew of Alexandria, Egypt, noted for his eloquence. Originally a follower of John the Baptist, he later became a Christian associate of Paul (Acts 18:24–28; 1 Cor. 1:12; 3:4–6, 22–23; 4:6). apology   A form of literature in which the author defends and explains his particular worldview and behavior. apostasy   The act of abandoning or rejecting a previously held religious belief; from a Greek term meaning "to revolt." An apostate is one who has defected from or ceased to practice his or her religion. apostle   A person sent forth or commissioned as a messenger, such as (but not restricted to) the Twelve whom Jesus selected to follow him. According to Acts 1, in the early Jerusalem church an apostle was defined as one who had accompanied Jesus during his earthly ministry and had seen the resurrected Lord. Lists of the original Twelve differ from account to account (Matt. 10:2–5; Mark 3:16–19; Luke 6:13–16; Acts 1:13–14). Aquila   A prominent early Christian (apparently) expelled from Rome with his wife, Priscilla, by Claudius's edict (c. 49 CE). Aquila is often associated with Paul (Acts 18; Rom. 16:3–5; 1 Cor. 16:19). Aramaic   The language of the Arameans (ancient Syrians), a West Semitic tongue used in parts of Mesopotamia from about 1000 BCE. After the Babylonian captivity (538 BCE), it became the common language of Palestinian Jews and was probably the language spoken by Jesus. Areopagus   The civic court in Athens and the location of an important legal council of the Athenian democracy where, according to Acts 17, Paul introduced Christianity to some Athenian intellectuals. ark of the covenant   According to Israelite tradition, the portable wooden chest built in Mosaic times to contain artifacts of the Mosaic faith, such as Aaron's staff and the stone tablets of the Decalogue (Exod. 25:10–22). Sometimes carried into battle ( Josh. 6: 4–11; 1 Sam. 4), the ark was eventually housed in Solomon's Temple. Its fate after the Temple's destruction (587 BCE) is unknown. Armageddon   A Greek transliteration of the Hebrew place-name Har-Megiddon, or "Mountain of Megiddo," a famous battlefield in the Plain of Jezreel in ancient Israel ( Judg. 5:19; 2 Kings 9:27; 23:29). In Revelation (16:16), it is the symbolic site of the ultimate war between Good and Evil. Artemis   Greek goddess of wildlife, the hunt, and childbirth, whose magnificent temple at Ephesus was one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World (see Acts 19). The Romans called her Diana and associated her with the moon. Asclepius   The son of a mortal woman, Coronis, and Apollo, the Greek god of prophecy, health, disease, and purification, he was the first physician, the founder and patron of medicine. Posthumously deified, he allegedly effected miraculous cures at shrines throughout the Greco-Roman world. Athens   Greece's dominant city-state and cultural capital in the fifth century BCE. Athens remained a leading intellectual center during Hellenistic and Roman times. Acts 17 depicts Paul debating Stoic and Epicurean philosophers there. Atonement, Day of (Yom Kippur)   A solemn, annual Jewish observance in which Israel's High Priest offered blood sacrifices ("sin offerings") to effect a reconciliation between the Deity and his people (Lev. 16). The banishment of a "scapegoat" to which the priest had symbolically transferred the people's collective guilt climaxed the atonement rites. This day marked the priest's once-yearly entrance into the Temple's Holy of Holies, a ceremony that the author of Hebrews says is a foreshadowing of Jesus' sacrificial death and ascension to the heavenly Temple (Heb. 9). Augustus (Augustus Caesar)   The first emperor of Rome (27 BCE –14 CE), who brought peace to the Roman Empire after centuries of civil war. According to Luke 2, his decree ordering a census of "the whole world" was the device that brought about Jesus' birth in Bethlehem. Babylon   An ancient city on the middle Euphrates that was the capital of both the Old Babylonian and the Neo-Babylonian empires. In 587 BCE, Babylonian armies destroyed Jerusalem and its Temple. As the archetypal enemy of God's people, Babylon became the symbol of any earthly government that opposed the faithful (Rev. 14:8; 18:12). baptism   A religious ceremony first associated with John the Baptist (Mark 1:4; 11:30; Luke 7:29) and performed on converts in the infant Christian community (Acts 2:38–41; 19:3–5). Baptism may have derived from ritual cleansings with water practiced by the Essenes or from the use of it by some Pharisees as a conversion alternative to circumcision. In Christianity, it is the rite of initiation into the church (1 Pet.), in which initiates either are totally immersed in water or have water poured on their heads. bar Kochba   The name (meaning "son of the star") that his supporters applied to the leader of the second Jewish Revolt against Rome (132–135 CE). Barabbas   A condemned murderer and possibly a revolutionary whom the Roman prefect Pontius Pilate released instead of Jesus (Mark 15:6–15; Matt. 27:15–18; Luke 23:16–25; John 18:39–49). Beatitudes   The list of blessings or sources of happiness with which Jesus begins the Sermon on the Mount (Matt. 5:3–12). Luke gives a simpler version of these sayings (6:20–23). Bethlehem   A village about five miles south of Jerusalem; birthplace of David (1 Sam. 17:12) and the traditional site of the Messiah's birth (Mic. 5:2; Matt. 2:5–6; Luke 2; John 7:42). Bible   A collection of Jewish and Christian sacred writings commonly divided into two main sections— the Hebrew Bible (Old Testament) and the later Christian Greek Scriptures (New Testament); from the Greek biblia, meaning "little books." Bithynia   In New Testament times, a Roman province in northern Asia Minor (modern Turkey) along the Black Sea coast and the location of several Christian churches (Acts 16:7; 1 Pet. 1:1). Caesar   A hereditary name by which the Roman emperors commemorated Gaius Julius Caesar, great uncle of Augustus, Rome's first emperor (Luke 2:1; 3:1; Mark 12:14; Acts 11:28; 25:11). Caesarea Philippi   An inland city north of the Sea of Galilee built by Philip, son of Herod the Great, and named for the emperor Tiberius Caesar; the site of Peter's recognition that Jesus was the Messiah (Mark 8:27; Matt. 16:13). Caesarea   An important Roman city, built by Herod the Great on the Palestinian coast about sixty-four miles northwest of Jerusalem and named in honor of Caesar Augustus. Caesarea was Pilate's administrative capital and later a Christian center (Acts 8:40; 10:1; 18:22; 21:18; 24). Paul was imprisoned there for two years (Acts 23–26). Caiaphas   Joseph Caiaphas, High Priest of Jerusalem during the reign of the emperor Tiberius (Matt. 26:3; 57–66; John 9:49; 18:13–28; Acts 4:6). Son-in-law to his immediate predecessor, Annas, he was appointed to the office by the prefect Valerius Gratus and presided over Jesus' hearing before the Sanhedrin. Calvary   The site outside Jerusalem's walls, exact location unknown, where Jesus was crucified (Luke 23:33). Calvary derives from the Latin word calveria, a translation of the Greek kranion, meaning "skull." Calvary was also called Golgotha, a name that comes from the Aramaic for "skull" (Matt. 27:33; John 19:17). Canaan   The Tanak name for the territory of Palestine west of the Jordan River, from Egypt in the south to Syria in the north (Gen. 10:19); according to biblical tradition, the land God promised to Abraham's descendants (Gen. 15:7-21; 17:1-8). Capernaum   A small port on the northwest shore of the Sea of Galilee that Jesus used as headquarters for his Galilean ministry (Matt. 9:1, 9–11; Mark 1:21–29; 2:3–11; Luke 7; John 4:46–54). catholic epistles   Seven short New Testament documents that were addressed to the church as a whole and thus are described as general, or "catholic" (universal). centurion   A low-ranking officer in the Roman army in charge of a "century," or division of 100 men. chaos   In ancient Greco-Roman belief, the original Void (the formless darkness) that existed before the ordered world (cosmos) came into being. Christ   The Messiah; from the Greek Christos, a translation of the Hebrew mashiah (messiah), meaning "the anointed one." The term derives from Israel's practice of anointing (pouring oil on the heads of ) kings at their coronation. Christology   Theological interpretation of the nature and function of Jesus, including doctrines about his divinity, his pre-human existence, and his role in creating the universe. church   In New Testament usage, the community of believers in Jesus Christ (Matt. 16:18; 18:17; Eph. 5:27; 1 Tim. 3:15; 1 Cor. 12:12–27; Col. 1:18). The term translates the Greek ekklesia, meaning "assembly of ones called out." circumcision   An ancient Semitic operation in which the foreskin of an eight-day-old male is removed as a ceremony of initiation into the religion and community of Israel. Genesis represents the practice as beginning with Abraham (Gen. 17:10–14); Exodus implies that circumcision began with Moses (Exod. 4:24–46). The question of whether to circumcise Gentile converts to the early Christian church was an important source of dissension (Acts 15; Gal. 2). Claudius   The fourth Roman emperor (41–54 CE), who expelled the Jews from Rome (Acts 11:28; 18:2). Colossae   An ancient Phrygian city situated on the south bank of the Lycus River in central Asia Minor, important for its position on the trade route between Ephesus and Mesopotamia (Col. 1:1–2; 4:13). Paul or a Pauline disciple composed a canonical letter to Christians there. Constantine   Roman emperor (306–337 CE) who converted to Christianity and whose reign began the period of state support for the early church. Constantine issued the Edict of Milan in 313 CE, mandating general tolerance of Christianity, and he presided over the Council of Nicaea in 325 CE, establishing a precedent for imperial leadership of the church. Coptic   A term relating to the church or liturgical language of the Copts, a people reputedly descended from the ancient Egyptians who preserved an early form of Christianity. The Nag-Hammadi library was written in Coptic. Corinth   A large and prosperous Greek city that the Romans first destroyed (146 BCE) and later rebuilt, making it the capital of the Roman province called Achaia (Greece). About 50 CE, Paul and his associates founded an important church there (Acts 18:24; 19:1; 1 and 2 Cor.). Cornelius   A Roman centurion associated with the synagogue in Caesarea who became the first Gentile convert to Christianity (Acts 10–11). cosmos   The Greek term for the ordered universe, a world system characterized by structure, stability, and harmony. covenant   A vow, agreement, or contract between two parties, a model of the relationship between God and his people. In Exodus, Yahweh makes a covenant with Israel in which the people agree to obey all his laws and instruction (the Torah) and to worship him exclusively (Exod. 20–24; 34; see also Deut. 28; Josh. 24). In Christian tradition, Jesus introduced a "New Covenant" with his disciples, making them the true Israel (Mark 14:22–25; Matt. 26:26–29; 1 Cor. 11:25). Damascus   The capital of Syria and the terminus of ancient caravan routes in the Fertile Crescent. Damascus was the site of Paul's earliest experiences as a Christian (Acts 9; Gal. 1:17). David   Popular king of Israel and second king of the united twelve-tribe monarchy (c. 1000–961 BCE). Son of Jesse (Ruth 4:18–22) and successor to Saul, David created an Israelite empire (1 Sam. 16; 2 Kings 2). After his short-lived kingdom disintegrated, later ages remembered his reign as a model of God's rule on earth and regarded David as a prototype of the Messiah, whom the prophets foresaw as an heir to the Davidic throne (Isa. 9:5–7; 11:1–16; Jer. 23:5; 30:9; Ezek. 34:23–31; Matt. 1–2; Rom. 1:3; etc.). Davidic Covenant   The promise that Yahweh made to King David to maintain David's heirs on Israel's throne forever (2 Sam. 7:8–16; Ps. 89:10–37), the basis of Israel's messianic hopes. deacon   A church officer in early Christianity; the term refers to one who serves or ministers. Dead Sea Scrolls   A collection of ancient documents found preserved in caves near Qumran on the northwest shore of the Dead Sea. The scrolls included copies (many in fragmental form) of all canonical books of the Hebrew Bible except Esther, works from the Apocrypha and the Pseudepigrapha, and commentaries and other writings of the Essene community. Dedication, Feast of   An eight-day Jewish celebration (now known as Hanukkah) instituted in 165 BCE by Judas Maccabeus and held annually on the twenty fifth day of Kislev (November–December). The holiday commemorates the cleansing and rededication of the Jerusalem Temple, which Antiochus IV had polluted. Referred to in John (10:22–38), it is also known as the Festival of Lights. devil   The English word commonly used to translate two Greek words with different meanings: 1. diabolos, "the accuser" ( John 8:44). 2. daimonion, one of the many evil spirits inhabiting the world, who were thought to cause disease, madness, and other afflictions (see Matt. 10:25; Mark 3:22; Luke 8; 11:14–16). In Revelation 12:9, the devil is identified with the Hebrew Satan and the serpent of Genesis 3. Diaspora   The distribution of Jews outside their Palestinian homeland, such as the many Jewish communities established throughout the Greco-Roman world; literally, a "scattering." Dionysus   The son of Zeus and the mortal Semele, princess of Thebes, he was the Greek god of wine, ecstasy, and emotional liberation. The only Olympian god to suffer death, a descent into the Underworld (Hades), resurrection, and ascension to heaven, he presided over mystery cults that apparently promised their adherents a future immortality. disciple   In the New Testament, a follower of a particular religious figure, such as Moses ( John 9:28), John the Baptist (Luke 11:1; John 1:35), the Pharisees (Mark 2:18), or Jesus (Matt. 14:26; 20:17); from the Greek word meaning "learner." Docetism   The belief, commonly associated with Gnostic Christianity, that Jesus was pure spirit and only appeared to be physically human; from the Greek verb meaning "to seem." Domitian   Roman emperor (81–96 CE), younger son of Vespasian, who ascended the throne following the death of his brother Titus. The Book of Revelation was written late in his reign. doxology   In a religious writing or service, the formal concluding expression of praise ascribing glory to God. Dragon   The image applied in Revelation 12 to Satan, the embodiment of evil forces opposing God. Derived from ancient Near Eastern mythology, the symbol of the giant reptile represents the powers of darkness and disorder (the original chaos) that God first conquered in creating the ordered universe (cosmos). Dualism   A philosophic or religious system that posits the existence of two parallel worlds, one of physical matter and the other of invisible spirit. Moral dualism views the universe as divided between powers of Good and Evil, Light and Dark, which contend for human allegiance. Elijah   The leader of Israel's prophetic movement during the ninth century BCE. Elijah fiercely championed the exclusive worship of Yahweh and opposed the Israelite cult of the Canaanite god Baal (1 Kings 17–19; 21; 2 Kings 1–2). Reportedly carried to heaven in a fiery chariot (2 Kings 2:1–13), he was expected to reappear shortly before the Day of Yahweh arrived (Mal. 4:5–6). Although some Christian writers identified John the Baptist with Elijah (Luke 1:17; Mark 9:12–13), some contemporaries viewed Jesus as Elijah returned (Mark 9:28; Matt. 16:14). Along with Moses, Elijah appears at Jesus' Transfiguration (Mark 9:4; Matt. 17:3; Luke 9:30). Elizabeth   The wife of the Levite priest Zechariah and mother of John the Baptist (Luke 1). Emmaus   A village (site unknown) near Jerusalem, along the road to which the resurrected Jesus appeared to two disciples (Luke 24:13–32). Enoch   A son of Cain (Gen. 4:17) or Jared (Gen. 5:18) and father of Methuselah (Gen. 5:21), taken by God (apparently to heaven). Legends surrounding Enoch's mysterious fate gave rise to a whole body of non-canonical literature in which Enoch returns to earth to describe his experiences in the spirit world and foretell events leading to the End. Epaphras   An early Christian of Colossae who reported on the Colossian church to the imprisoned Paul (Col. 1:7; 4:12; Philem. 23). Epaphroditus   A Macedonian Christian from Philippi who assisted Paul in prison (Phil. 2:25–27). Ephesus   A wealthy Hellenistic city, in New Testament times the capital of the Roman province of Asia, site of the famous temple of Artemis (Diana) (Acts 19–20). Mentioned frequently in Paul's correspondence (1 Cor. 16:19; 2 Cor. 12:14; 13:1; 1 Tim. 3:1; etc.), the Ephesian church receives the author's favorable judgment in Revelation 2:1–7. epiphany   An appearance or manifestation, particularly of a divine being. epistle   A formal communication intended to be read publicly. eschatology   Beliefs about the supernaturally directed destiny of humanity and the universe; from the Greek word meaning "study of last things." Associated with an apocalyptic worldview, eschatology has both personal and general applications: 1. Beliefs about the individual soul following death, including divine judgment, heaven, hell, and resurrection. 2. Larger concerns about the fate of the cosmos, including convictions about a divinely guided renewal of the world and human society in the near future or in the present (realized eschatology). eschaton   From the Greek eschatos, meaning "last," term designating the end of history or human life. Eucharist   The Christian ceremony of consecrated bread and wine that Jesus initiated at the Last Supper (Mark 14:22–25; Matt. 26:26–29; etc.); from the Greek word meaning "gratitude" or "thanksgiving." Evangelist   From the Greek euangelion (good news); the writer of a Gospel. exorcism   The act or practice of expelling a demon or evil spirit from a person or place (Tob. 8:1–3; Mark 1:23–27, 32–34; 5:1–20; Matt. 8:25–34; Acts 19:13–19; etc.). expiation   The act of making atonement for sin, usually by offering a sacrifice to appease divine wrath (Lev. 16; Heb. 9). Fall, the   Humanity's loss of innocence and divine favor through the first human beings' sin of disobedience (Gen. 3). According to some interpretations of Pauline thought (Rom. 5:12–21; 1 Cor. 15:45–49), the Fall resulted in the transmission of death and a proclivity toward wrongdoing to the entire human race. As a medieval rhyme expressed it, "In Adam's fall, we sinned all." Felix, Antonius   The Roman procurator of Judea (52–59 CE) before whom Paul was tried at Caesarea (Acts 23:23–24:27). Festus, Porcius   The procurator of Judea (c. 59–62 CE) whom Nero appointed to succeed Felix and through whom Paul appealed to be tried by Caesar's court in Rome (Acts 24:27–26:32). form criticism   A method of biblical analysis that attempts to isolate, classify, and analyze individual units or characteristic forms contained in a literary text and to identify the probable pre-literary form of these units before their incorporation into the written text; the term is an English rendition of the German Formsgeschichte. Form criticism also attempts to discover the setting in life (Sitz-im-Leben) of each unit—that is, the historical, social, religious, and cultural environment from which it developed—and to trace or reconstruct the process by which various traditions evolved from their original oral state to their final literary form. Fourth Gospel   The Gospel of John, last-written of the four canonical Gospels; it differs markedly in form, order, and content from the three Synoptics. fundamentalism   A largely North American Protestant movement, beginning about 1900, that affirmed the literal factuality of all biblical statements and rejected post-Enlightenment questioning of biblical infallibility. Gabriel   In the Hebrew angelic hierarchy, one of the seven archangels whose duty it was to convey the Deity's messages. Gabriel explained Daniel's visions to him (Dan. 8:15–26; 9:20–27) and, in the New Testament, announced the births of John the Baptist and Jesus (Luke 1:15–17, 26–38). The name may mean "person of God" or "God has shown himself mighty." Galatia   A region in the interior of Asia Minor (Turkey) settled by Gauls; in New Testament times, a Roman province visited by Paul and his associates (Acts 16:6; 18:23; 1 Cor. 16:1; Gal. 1:2; 1 Pet. 1:1). Galilee, Sea of   The major body of fresh water in northern Palestine, source of livelihood to many Galilean fishermen, such as Peter, Andrew, James, and John (Matt. 4:18–22). Galilee   The region of northern Palestine lying west of the Jordan River, where Jesus grew up and carried out much of his public ministry (Mark 1–9; Matt. 2:23; Luke 4); from the Hebrew Ghil-ha-goyim, meaning "circle of Gentiles." In Jesus' day, Herod Antipas administered this region for the Romans (Luke 23:5–7). Gallio   A proconsul of Achaia (the Roman province of Greece) who dismissed charges brought against Paul by Corinthian Jews (Acts 18:12–17). Gallio was a brother of Seneca, the Stoic philosopher. Gamaliel   A leading Pharisee and scholar, a member of the Sanhedrin, the reputed teacher of Paul (Acts 5:34–40; 22:3), and an exponent of the liberal wing of the Pharisaic party developed by his grandfather, Hillel. Gehenna   The New Testament name for the "Valley of the Son [or Children] of Hinnom," a topographical depression that bordered Jerusalem on the south and west and that had been the site of human sacrifices to Molech and other Canaanite gods ( Jer. 7:32; Lev. 18:21; 1 Kings 11:7; 2 Chron. 28:3; 33:6). Later used as a dump in which garbage was burned, the valley became a symbol of punishment in the afterlife and is cited as such by Jesus (Matt. 5:22; 10:28–29; 18:8; 25:30, 46; etc.). Gehenna is commonly translated as "hell" in the Gospels. Gemara   The second part of the Talmud, an extensive commentary, in Aramaic, on the Hebrew Mishnah. Gentile   A non-Jewish person, a member of "the nations" that are not in a covenant relationship with Yahweh. Jewish writers commonly refer to Gentiles as "the uncircumcised," persons not bearing the ritual mark of the covenant people. Gethsemane   The site of a garden or orchard on the Mount of Olives where Jesus took his disciples after the Last Supper; the place where he was arrested (Matt. 26:36–56; Mark 14:32–52; Luke 22:39–53; John 18:1–14). Gnosticism   A widespread and extremely diverse movement in early Christianity. Followers of Gnosticism believed that salvation is gained through a special knowledge (gnosis) revealed through a spiritual savior (presumably Jesus) and is the property of an elite few who have been initiated into its mysteries. In its various forms, Gnosticism became a major heresy in the early church, though little is certain about its precise tenets. Gog   In Ezekiel, a future leader of Israel's enemies (Ezek. 38) whose attack on the Jerusalem sanctuary will precipitate Yahweh's intervention and the ultimate destruction of the wicked (Rev. 20:8). Gospel   1. The Christian message, literally meaning "good news." 2. The literary form of Christian narratives about Jesus. Gospels, Synoptic   The three canonical Gospels— Matthew, Mark, and Luke—that present Jesus' public life from a strikingly similar viewpoint, structuring their respective narratives so that the contents can be arranged in parallel columns. Hades   In Greek religion, the name of the god of the Underworld, a mythic region that also came to be known by that name. In translating the Hebrew Bible into Greek, the Septuagint translators rendered Sheol (the Hebrew term for the subterranean abode of all the dead) as Hades (Gen. 42:38; 1 Sam. 2:6; Job 7:9; Prov. 27:20; Eccles. 9:10).New Testament writers also refer to the place of the dead as Hades (Rev. 1:18; 20:14). See also Gehenna. Haggadah   The imaginative interpretation of the non-legal (historical and religious) passages of the Hebrew Bible. A collection of Haggadah, dating from the first centuries CE, appears in the Palestinian Talmud. See also Halakah. Halakah   The interpretation of the legal sections of the Mosaic Torah. The term derives from a Hebrew word meaning "to follow"; Halakah deals with rules that guide a person's life. Collections of halakic interpretations dating from the first centuries CE are incorporated into the Talmud. See also Haggadah. Hanukkah   The Feast of Dedication celebrating the Maccabees' restoration of the Jerusalem Temple about 165 BCE. Hasidim   Devout Jews who refused to forsake their religion during the persecution inflicted by Antiochus IV (second century BCE). The Jewish religious parties of the New Testament period are descended from the Hasidim. Hasmoneans   The Jewish royal dynasty founded by the Maccabees and named for Hasmon, an ancestor of Mattathias. Hebrew Bible   A collection of Jewish sacred writings originally written in the Hebrew language (although some later books are in Aramaic); known to Christians as the Old Testament. The Hebrew Bible is traditionally divided into three main parts: the Torah or Law (Genesis through Deuteronomy); the Prophets ( Joshua through the twelve minor prophets); and the Writings (Psalms through Chronicles). Hellenism   The influence and adoption of Greek thought, language, values, and customs that began with the conquest of the eastern Mediterranean world by Alexander the Great and intensified under his Hellenistic successors and various Roman emperors. Hellenistic   Greek-like; pertaining to the historical period following Alexander's death in 323 BCE during which Greek language, ideas, and customs permeated the eastern Mediterranean and Near Eastern worlds. Hellenists   Jews living outside Palestine who adopted the Greek language and, to varying degrees, Greek customs and ideas (Acts 6:1; 9:29). heresy   An opinion contrary to that officially endorsed by religious authorities or persons in power. Applied to early Christianity by its detractors (Acts 24:14), the term was not generally used in its modern sense during New Testament times except in the pastoral epistles (1 Tim. 1:3; Titus 3:10). Herod   The name of seven Palestinian rulers: 1. Herod I (the Great), the Idumean Roman-appointed ruler when Jesus was born (Matt. 2:1). An able administrator who lavishly reconstructed the Jerusalem Temple, he was notorious for reputed cruelty and was almost universally hated by the Jews. 2. Herod Antipas, son of Herod I, tetrarch of Galilee (Luke 3:1) and Perea (4 BCE –39 CE), frequently mentioned in the New Testament. Jesus, who called him "that fox" (Luke 13:31–32) and regarded him as a malign influence (Mark 8:15), was tried before him (Luke 9:7, 9; 23:7–15). Antipas was also responsible for executing John the Baptist (Matt. 14:1–12). 3. Herod Archelaus, ethnarch of Judea, Samaria, who so misruled his territory that he was recalled to Rome, an event to which Jesus apparently refers in Luke 19:12–27. Archelaus's evil reputation caused Joseph and Mary to avoid Judea and settle in Nazareth (Matt. 2:22–23). 4. Herod, a son of Herod the Great and half-brother to Herod Antipas (Matt. 14:3; Mark 6:17). 5. Herod Philip II, son of Herod the Great and half brother of Herod Antipas, who ruled portions of northeastern Palestine and rebuilt the city of Caesarea Philippi near Mount Hermon (Luke 3:1). 6. Herod Agrippa I, son of Aristobulus and grandson of Herod the Great, who ingratiated himself at the imperial court in Rome and, under Claudius, was made king over most of Palestine (41–44 CE). A persecutor of Christians, he reportedly died a horrible death immediately after accepting divine honors (Acts 12:1–23). 7. Herod Agrippa II, son of Herod Agrippa I and great-grandson of Herod the Great, first king of Chalcis (50 CE) and then of the territory formerly ruled by Philip the Tetrarch, as well as of the adjoining area east of Galilee and the Upper Jordan. This was the Herod, together with his sister Bernice, before whom Paul appeared at Caesarea (Acts 25:13–26:32). Hinnom, Valley of   A depression in the earth lying south and west of Jerusalem; also called the "Valley of the Son (or Children) of Hinnom" ( Jer. 7:32; 2 Kings 23:10). Called Gehenna in the New Testament, it is a symbol of the place of posthumous torment. See also Gehenna. historical criticism   A critical method involving the analysis of a document to determine its relative historical accuracy and plausibility, including such matters as the author's purpose (or bias) and the socio-historical context Holy of Holies   The innermost and most sacred room of the Jerusalem Temple, where Yahweh was believed to be invisibly enthroned. Holy Spirit   The presence of God active in human life, a concept most explicitly set forth in John 14:16–26 and in the Pentecost miracle depicted in Acts 2. In post-New Testament times, the Holy Spirit was defined as the Third Person in the Trinity (see Matt. 28:19–20). Idumea   The name (meaning "pertaining to Edom") that the Greeks and Romans applied to the country of Edom, Judah's southern neighbor; the homeland of Herod the Great (Mark 3:8). Incarnation   The Christian doctrine that the pre-human Son of God became flesh, the man Jesus of Nazareth—a concept based largely on the Logos hymn that opens John's Gospel ( John 1:1–18, especially 1:14). Isaac   The son of Abraham and Sarah (Gen. 21:1–7), child of the covenant promise by which Abraham's descendants would bring a blessing to all the earth's families (Gen. 17:15–22; 18:1–15) but whom Yahweh commanded to be sacrificed to him (Gen. 18:1–18). Reprieved by an angel, Isaac marries Rebekah (Gen. 24:1–67), who bears him twin sons, Esau and Jacob (Gen. 25:19–26), the latter of whom has his name changed to Israel. Paul interprets the near-sacrifice of Isaac as an allegory of Christ (Gal. 4:21–31). Isis   Egyptian mother goddess who was worshiped in mystery cults throughout the Roman Empire. Images in which she nurses her infant son Horus anticipate later Christian renditions of the Madonna. Israel   1. The name an angel (or Yahweh) gives to Jacob (cf. Gen. 32:28; 35:10). 2. The Israelite nation descended from Jacob's twelve sons, Yahweh's covenant people united under kings Saul, David, and Solomon. 3. The northern kingdom of Israel, as opposed to the southern state of Judah, during the divided monarchy (922–721 BCE); even after the Assyrians destroyed the northern kingdom in 721 BCE, the covenant people were known collectively as "Israel." Jairus   The head of a synagogue in Galilee who asked Jesus to heal his dying child, for which act of faith he was rewarded with the girl's miraculous cure (Luke 8:41–42, 49–56; Mark 5:35–43; Matt. 9:18–20, 23–26). James   1. Son of Zebedee, brother of John, and one of the Twelve Apostles (Mark 1:19–20; 3:17; Matt. 4:21–22; 10:2; Luke 5:10; 6:14). A Galilean fisherman, he left his trade to follow Jesus and, with John and Peter, became a member of his inner circle. He was among the three disciples present at the Transfiguration (Mark 9:2–10; Matt. 17:1–9; Luke 9:28–36) and was at Jesus' side during the last hours before his arrest (Mark 14:32–42; Matt. 26:36–45). James and John used their intimacy to request a favored place in the messianic kingdom, thus arousing the other apostles' indignation (Mark 10:35–45). James was beheaded when Herod Agrippa I persecuted the Jerusalem church (41–44 CE) (Acts 12:2). 2. James, son of Alphaeus and Mary (Acts 1:13; Mark 16:1), one of the Twelve (Matt. 10:3–4), called "the less" or "the younger" (Mark 15:40). 3. James, the eldest of Jesus' three "brothers" (or close male relatives) named in the Gospels (Mark 6:3; Matt. 13:55). He first opposed Jesus' work (Matt. 12:46–50; Mark 3:31–35; Luke 8:19–21; John 7:3–5) but was apparently converted by one of Jesus' post-resurrection appearances (1 Cor. 15:7) and became a leader in the Jerusalem church (Acts 15:13–34; 21:18–26). According to legend, a Nazirite and upholder of the Mosaic Law, he apparently clashed with Paul over the latter's policy of absolving Gentile converts from circumcision and other Torah requirements (Gal. 1:18– 2:12). The reputed author of the New Testament epistle of James, he was martyred at Jerusalem in the early 60s CE. Jamnia, Academy of   An assembly of eminent Palestinian rabbis and Pharisees held about 90 CE in the coastal village of Jamnia (Yabneh) to define and guide Judaism following the Roman destruction of Jerusalem and its Temple. According to tradition, a leading Pharisee named Yohanan ben Zakkai had escaped from the besieged city by simulating death and being carried out in a coffin by his disciples. Yohanan, who had argued that saving human lives was more important than success in the national rebellion against Rome, was given Roman support to set up an academy to study the Mosaic Law. Under his direction, the Pharisees not only preserved the Torah traditions but apparently provided authoritative leadership for postwar Judaism. Jesus   The English form of a Latin name derived from the Greek Iesous, which translated the Hebrew Jeshua, a later version of Jehoshua or Joshua, meaning "Yahweh is salvation." The name was borne by several biblical figures, including Joshua, leader of the conquest of Canaan; an ancestor of Jesus (Luke 3:29); and a Jewish Christian also called Justus (Col. 4:11). It was also the name of the author of Ecclesiasticus, Jesus ben Sirach. John the Apostle   A Galilean fisherman, son of Zebedee and brother of the apostle James, called by Jesus to be among his twelve most intimate followers (Mark 1:19–20; Matt. 4:21–22). Jesus called James and John Boanerges (sons of thunder), possibly because of their impetuous temperaments (Mark 3:17; 9:38; Luke 9:52–56). Always among the first four in the Gospel lists of the Twelve (Mark 3:14–17; Matt. 10:2; Luke 6:3–14), John was present at the Transfiguration (Matt. 17:1; Mark 9:2; Luke 9:28) and at Gethsemane (Matt. 26:37; Mark 14:33). Tradition identifies him with the Beloved Disciple ( John 13:23; 21:20) and as the author of the Gospel of John, a premise that most scholars believe is unlikely. Along with Peter and James, he was one of the triple "pillars" of the Jerusalem church (Acts 1:13; 3:1–4:22; 8:14–17; Gal. 2:9). He may have been martyred under Herod Agrippa, although a late-second-century tradition states that he lived to old age in Ephesus. Joseph   1. The husband of Mary and legal father of Jesus, a descendant of the Bethlehemite David (Matt. 1:20) but resident of Nazareth (Luke 2:4), where he was a carpenter (Matt. 13:55). Little is known of him except for his piety (Luke 2:21–24, 41–42) and his wish to protect his betrothed wife from scandal (Luke 2:1–5). Because he does not appear among Jesus' family members during his (supposed) son's public ministry, it is assumed that he died before Jesus began his preaching career (Matt. 1:18–2:23; 13:55–56). 2. Joseph of Arimathea, a wealthy member of the Sanhedrin and, according to John 19:38, a secret follower of Jesus who claimed Jesus' crucified body from Pilate for burial in his private garden tomb (Matt. 27:57–60; Mark 15:42–46; Luke 23:50–53; John 19:38–42). Josephus, Flavius   An important Jewish historian (c. 37–100 CE) whose two major works—Antiquities of the Jews and The Jewish War (covering the revolt against Rome, 66–73 CE)—provide valuable background material for first-century Judaism and the early Christian period. Judah   1. The fourth son of the patriarch Jacob and his wife Leah (Gen. 29:35), progenitor of the tribe of Judah. 2. The kingdom of Judah during the divided monarchy (922–721 BCE), ruled by the Davidic dynasty until the Babylonian conquest (587 BCE) brought it to an end. Judas the Galilean   A Jewish patriot from Galilee who led an unsuccessful insurrection against Rome in 6 CE (Acts 5:37). Judas   A late form of the name Judah, popular after the time of Judas ("the Jew") Maccabeus and borne by several New Testament figures: 1. The brother (or son) of James, one of the Twelve Apostles (Luke 6:16), who is sometimes identified with the Thaddeus of Matthew 10:3 or the Judas of John 14:22. 2. The "brother" or kinsman of Jesus (Mark 6:3; Matt. 13:55). 3. Judas Iscariot ("Judas the man of Kerioth"), son of Simon Iscariot ( John 6:71; 13:26), the apostle who betrayed Jesus to the priests and Romans for thirty pieces of silver (Mark 3:19; 14:10; Luke 6:16; Matt. 26:14–16, 47; John 18:3) but later returned the blood money and committed suicide (Matt. 27:3–5; Acts 1:18–20). The Gospel writers little understood Judas's motives, attributing them to simple greed or to the influence of Satan (Luke 22:3; John 6:71; 12:1–8; 13:11, 27–29). Jude   An Anglicized form of the name Judah or Judas; one of Jesus' "brothers" (or a close male relative) (Mark 6:3; Matt. 13:55), perhaps a son born to Joseph before his marriage to Mary. Jude is less prominent in the early Christian community than his brother James ( Jude 1:1) and is the traditional author of the Epistle of Jude, though most scholars doubt this claim. Judea   The Greco-Roman designation for territory comprising the old kingdom of Judah. The name first occurs in Ezra 5:8, a reference to the "province of Judea." In the time of Jesus, Judea was the southernmost of the three divisions of the Roman province of western Palestine, the other two of which were Samaria and Galilee (Neh. 2:7; Luke 1:39; John 3:22; 11:7; Acts 1:1; Gal. 1:22). Judgment, Day of   A theological concept deriving from the ancient Hebrew belief that the Day of Yahweh would see Israel's triumph and the destruction of its enemies, a confidence the prophet Amos shattered by proclaiming that it would mean calamity for Israel, as for all who broke Yahweh's laws (Amos 5:18–20). This view prevails in Zephaniah 1:1–2; 3 and Malachi 3:1–6; 4:1–6. Isaiah also refers to "that day" of coming retribution (Isa. 11:10–16; 13:9, 13), and it is given an apocalyptic setting in Daniel 7:9–14, an idea developed in several apocryphal and pseudepigraphal books as well as in the New Testament (Matt. 25; Rev. 20). Jupiter   Latin name of the chief Roman deity, counterpart of the Greek Zeus, king of the Olympian gods for whom some ignorant men of Lycaonia mistook Paul's companion Barnabas (Acts 14:12–18). kerygma   The act of publicly preaching the Christian message; a Greek term meaning "proclamation." kingdom of God   The rule or dominion of God in human affairs; the translation of the Greek basileia tou theou. koinē-   The common Greek in which the New Testament is written. Koinē- Greek was a later form of classical Greek and was the everyday language of the Hellenistic world. L   Abbreviation for special Lukan material, the scholarly term designating passages that appear only in the Gospel of Luke. Last Supper   Jesus' final meal with his disciples. Depicted as a Passover observance in the Synoptic Gospels, it was the occasion at which Jesus instituted a "New Covenant" with his followers and inaugurated the ceremony of bread and wine (Holy Communion, or the Eucharist) (Mark 14:12–26; Matt. 26:20–29; Luke 22:14–23; 1 Cor. 11:23–26). Lazarus   1. The brother of Mary and Martha, a resident of Bethany whom Jesus resuscitated ( John 11:1–12:10). 2. The beggar in Jesus' parable of rewards and punishments in the afterlife (Luke 16:20–25). Levites   The Israelite tribe descended from Levi, son of Jacob (Num. 3; 1 Chron. 5:27–6:81) that was given priestly duties in lieu of land holdings when Israel conquered Canaan (Deut. 18:1–8). According to a priestly writer, only descendants of Aaron were to be priests (Exod. 28:1; Num. 18:7); the Levites were regarded as their assistants and servants (Num. 18:2–7; 20–32). They served as priests of secondary rank and as temple functionaries during the postexilic period, which was dominated by a priestly hierarchy (1 Chron. 24–26). Other stories involving Levites appear in Judges 19–21 and Luke 10:32. literary criticism   A form of literary analysis that attempts to categorize or define literary types, the stages of composition from oral to written form, a text's characteristic rhetorical features, major themes, and the stages and degree of redaction (editing) of a text. liturgy   A body of rites, including both actions and spoken formulas, used in public worship, such as the ceremony of the Eucharist (Holy Communion). The Didache (c. 100 CE) describes some of the church's earliest liturgical practices, including baptism and Communion. Logos   A Greek term meaning both "word" and "reason," used by Greek philosophers to denote the rational principle that creates and informs the universe. Amplified by Philo Judaeus of Alexandria, Egypt, to represent the mediator between God and his material creation, as Wisdom had been in Proverbs 8:22–31, the term found its most famous expression in the prologue to the Fourth Gospel to denote the pre-human Jesus—"the Word became flesh and dwelt among us" ( John 1:14). Luke   A physician and traveling companion of Paul (Col. 4:14; Philem. 24; 2 Tim. 4:11) to whom a late second-century tradition ascribes the Gospel of Luke and the Book of Acts. Lystra   A city in the Roman province of Galatia where Paul and Barnabas performed such successful healings that they were identified as Hermes and Zeus (Mercury and Jupiter) (Acts 14:6–19; 16:1; 18:23). Maccabees   A name bestowed upon the family that won religious and political independence for the Jews from their Greek-Syrian oppressors. Judas, called Maccabeus ("[God's] hammer"), son of the aged priest Mattathias, led his brothers and other faithful Jews against the armies of Antiochus IV (Epiphanes) (175–163 BCE). The dynasty his brothers established was called Hasmonean (after an ancestor named Hasmon) and ruled Judea until 63 BCE, when the Romans occupied Palestine. Macedonia   The large mountainous district in northern Greece ruled by Philip of Macedon (359–336 BCE). Philip's son Alexander the Great (356–323 BCE) extended the Macedonian Empire over the entire ancient Near East as far as western India, incorporating all of the earlier Persian Empire. Conquered by Rome (168 BCE) and annexed as a province (146 BCE), Macedonia was the first part of Europe to be Christianized (Acts 16:10–17:9; 18:5; 19:29; 20:1–3). Magnificat   Mary's beautiful hymn of praise, recorded in Luke 1:46–55. Magog   In Ezekiel, a future leader of Israel's enemies (Ezek. 39). Marcion   An early Gnostic Christian who attempted to establish a Christian Scripture distinct from the Hebrew Bible, which he rejected. Marcion's canon included only Luke's Gospel and the Pauline letters, the only documents he believed to reflect true belief. The church at Rome expelled him as a heretic about 140 CE. Mark (John Mark)   Son of Mary, a Jerusalem Jew who accompanied Barnabas (his cousin) and Paul on an early missionary journey (Acts 12:12–25; 13:5, 13; 15:37). For reasons unstated, he left them at Perga (Acts 13:13), which so angered Paul that he refused to allow Mark to join a later preaching campaign (Acts 15:38), though he and the apostle were later reconciled (Col. 4:10; Philem. 24). Some commentators identify Mark with the youth who ran away naked at the time of Jesus' arrest (Mark 14:51–52). An early tradition ascribes authorship of the Gospel of Mark to him, as Papias and Eusebius (History 3.39.15) testify. Martha   The sister of Mary and Lazarus of Bethany (Luke 10:38–42; John 11:1–12:2), whose home Jesus frequently visited. martyr   A "witness" for Christ who prefers to die rather than relinquish his or her faith. Stephen, at whose stoning Saul of Tarsus assisted, is known as the first Christian martyr (Acts 22:20; Rev. 2:13; 17:6). Mary   From the Latin and Greek Maria and the Hebrew Miryam (Miriam), a name borne by six women in the New Testament: 1. Mary the Virgin, wife of Joseph and mother of Jesus, who, the angel Gabriel informed her, was conceived by the Holy Spirit (Matt. 1:18–25; Luke 1:26–56; 2:21). From her home in Nazareth, Mary traveled to Bethlehem, where her first son was born (Luke 2:1–18), and thence into Egypt to escape Herod's persecution (Matt 2:1–18), returning to Nazareth in Galilee after Herod's death (4 BCE) (Matt. 2:19–23). She had one sister ( John 18:25), probably Salome, wife of Zebedee, mother of James and John (Matt. 27:56), and was also related to Elizabeth, mother of John the Baptist (Luke 1:36). Gabriel's annunciation of the Messiah's birth occurs in Luke 1:26–36; the Magnificat, in Luke 1:46–55. Mary visited Jerusalem annually for the Passover (Luke 2:41) and reprimanded the twelve-year-old Jesus for lingering behind at the Temple (Luke 2: 46–50). She may have been among family members convinced that Jesus' early preaching showed mental instability (Mark 3:21) and apparently humored his requests during the wedding celebration at Cana ( John 2:1–12). Although Jesus showed his mother little deference during his ministry (Mark 3:31–35; Luke 11:27–28; John 2:4), on the cross he entrusted her care to his Beloved Disciple ( John 19:25–27). Mary last appears in the upper room praying with the disciples just before Pentecost (Acts 1:13–14). 2. Mary Magdalene, a woman from Magdala, from whom Jesus cast out seven demons (Luke 8:1–2) and who became his follower. A common tradition asserts that she had been a prostitute whom Jesus had rescued from her former life (Mark 16:9; Luke 7:37–50), but this is by no means certain. She was present at the Crucifixion (Mark 15:40; Matt. 15:47), visited Jesus' tomb early Sunday morning (Matt. 28:1; Mark 16:1; Luke 24:10; John 20:1), and was one of the first to see the risen Jesus (Matt. 28:9; Mark 16:9; John 20: 11–18), although the male disciples refused to believe her (Luke 24:9–11). 3. Mary, sister of Lazarus and Martha, whose home at Bethany Jesus frequented (Luke 10:38–42; John 11:1–12:8). 4. Mary, wife of Clopas, mother of James the Less and Joseph ( Joses), was a witness to Jesus' crucifixion, burial, and resurrection (Matt. 27:56–61; 28:1; Mark 15:40, 47; 16:1; Luke 24:10; John 19:25). 5. Mary, sister of Barnabas and mother of John Mark, provided her Jerusalem home as a meeting place for the disciples (Acts 12:12; Col. 4:10). 6. An otherwise anonymous Mary mentioned in Romans 16:6. Masada   A stronghold built by Herod the Great on a fortified plateau 800 feet above the Dead Sea. Masada was captured by Zealots during the revolt against Rome (66 CE).When the attacking Romans finally entered Masada (73 CE), they found only 7 women and children alive, 953 others having died in a suicide pact. Masoretic Text (MT)   The standard text of the Hebrew Bible as given final form by the Masoretes in the seventh through eleventh centuries CE. Mattathias   A Jewish priest who, with his sons John, Simon, Judas, Eleazar, and Jonathan, led a revolt against the oppressions of Antiochus IV (c. 168–167 BCE) (1 Macc. 2:1–70). Matthias   The early Christian elected to replace Judas among the Twelve (Acts 1:23–26) about whom nothing else is known. The name means "gift of Yahweh." Melchizedek   The king-priest of Canaanite Salem (probably the site of Jerusalem) to whom Abraham paid a tenth of his spoils of war (Gen. 14:17–20); cited by the author of Hebrews as foreshadowing Jesus Christ (Ps. 110:4; Heb. 5:6–10; 7:1–25). Melchizedek   The king-priest of Canaanite Salem (probably the site of Jerusalem) to whom Abraham paid a tenth of his spoils of war (Gen. 14:17–20); cited by the author of Hebrews as foreshadowing Jesus Christ (Ps. 110:4; Heb. 5:6–10; 7:1–25). Mercury   Roman name for Hermes, Greek god of persuasion, business, and trade and messenger of Zeus, for whom Paul was mistaken in Lystra (Acts 14:12). Messiah   A Hebrew term [mashiah] meaning "anointed one," designating a king or priest of ancient Israel who had been consecrated by having holy oil poured on his head, marking him as set apart for a special role. King David is the model of Yahweh's anointed ruler; all his descendants who ruled over Judah were Yahweh's messiahs (2 Sam. 7:1–29; Ps. 89:3–45). After the end of the Davidic monarchy (587 BCE), various Hebrew prophets applied the promises made to the Davidic dynasty to a future heir who would eventually restore the kingdom of David (Pss. 2; 110; Dan. 9:25–26). Christians believe that Jesus of Nazareth was the promised Messiah (Christ) as expressed in Peter's "confession" (Matt. 16:13–20; Mark 8:27–30; Luke 9:18–22; etc.). messianic secret   The phrase that the German scholar William Wrede used to describe a major theme in Mark's Gospel—Jesus' "hidden messiahship," particularly his oft-repeated injunction to persons he heals to keep quiet about his miraculous actions. Michael   The angel whom the Book of Daniel represents as being the spirit prince, guardian, and protector of Israel (Dan. 10:13, 21; 12:1). Jude 9 depicts him as an archangel fighting with Satan for Moses' body. In Revelation 12:7, he leads the war against the Dragon (Satan) and casts him from heaven. His name means "who is like God." midrash   A commentary on or interpretation of Hebrew Scripture. Collections of such haggadic or halakic expositions of the significance of the biblical text are called midrashim; from a Hebrew word meaning "to search out." millennium   A 1,000-year epoch, particularly the period of Christ's universal reign (Rev. 20:1–8), during which Satan will be chained and the dead resurrected. Mishnah   A collection of Pharisaic oral interpretations (Halakah) of the Torah compiled and edited by Rabbi Judah ha-Nasi about 200 CE; from the Hebrew verb "to repeat." Mithras   Persian savior god who killed a celestial bull and was worshiped in mystery cults throughout the Roman Empire. A serious rival to early Christianity, Mithraism was limited by the fact that only men were initiated into the religion. monotheism   Belief in the existence of one God, a major theme of Second Isaiah (Isa. 40–46) and the central tenet of Judaism. Mosaic Covenant   In the Hebrew Bible, the pact between Yahweh and Israel mediated by Moses (Exod. 19–24). According to the terms of the pact, Yahweh's support of Israel was dependent on the people's obedience to his will, expressed in the laws and principles of the Torah (Deut. 28–29). Moses   The great Hebrew lawgiver, religious reformer, founder of the Israelite nation, and central figure of the Pentateuch. Adopted by pharaoh's daughter and raised at the Egyptian royal court (Exod. 2:5–10; Acts 7:22), he fled Egypt after killing an Egyptian bully and settled in Midian among the Kenites, where he encountered Yahweh at a burning bush (Exod. 3:1–4:17). He returned to Egypt (Exod. 4:18–31), interceded with pharaoh during the ten plagues (Exod. 5–11), and led the Israelites across the Red Sea (Exod. 14–15) to Sinai. There, he mediated the Law covenant between Yahweh and Israel (Exod. 19–31). Moses figures prominently in Paul's theology (Rom. 5:14; 10:5; 1 Cor. 10:2; 2 Cor. 3:7; 3:15) and that of the author of Hebrews (Heb. 3:2; 7:14; 9:19; 11:23). Jude preserves an old tradition, probably derived from the pseudepigraphal Assumption of Moses, that Satan disputed the angel Michael for Moses' body ( Jude 9; Rev. 15:3). narrative criticism   A critical methodology applied to analyzing a literary narrative, including its structure, the point of view from which it is told, the author's implied attitude toward his characters, and the work's assumed audience. Nazareth   A town in Lower Galilee above the Plain of Esdraelon (Megiddo) where Jesus spent his youth and began his ministry (Matt. 2:23; Luke 1:26; 4:16; John 1:46). Nero (Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus)   Emperor of Rome (54–68 CE), the Caesar by whom Paul wished to be tried in Acts 25:11 and under whose persecution Paul was probably beheaded (64–65 CE). A first-century superstition held that Nero, slain during a palace revolt, would return at the head of an army. Nero was regarded by some Christians as the anti-Christ, and his reappearance is apparently suggested in Revelation 13:4–18. Nicodemus   A leading Pharisee and member of the Sanhedrin ( John 3:1; 7:50; 19:39) who discussed spiritual rebirth with Jesus ( John 3:1–21), visited him by night and defended him against other Pharisees ( John 7:45–52), and, with Joseph of Arimathea, helped entomb his body ( John 19:38–42). Olives, Mount of (Olivet)   A mile-long limestone ridge with several distinct summits paralleling the eastern section of Jerusalem, from which it is separated by the narrow Kidron Valley. Here David fled during Absalom's rebellion (2 Sam. 15:30–32), and according to Zechariah 14:3–5, here Yahweh will stand at the final eschatological battle, when the mountain will be torn asunder from east to west. From its summit, with its panoramic view of Jerusalem, Jesus delivered his eschatological judgment on the city that had rejected him (Matt. 24–25). He often retreated to its shady groves in the evening ( John 7:53; 8:1), including the night before his death (Matt. 26:30–56; Mark 14:26; Luke 22:39; see also Matt. 21:1; Mark 11:1; Luke 19:29; Acts 1:12). omega   The last letter in the Greek alphabet, used with alpha (the first letter) as a symbol of the eternity of God (Rev. 1:8; 21:6) and Jesus (Rev. 1:17; 22:13), probably echoing Isaiah's description of Yahweh as "the first and the last" (Isa. 44:6; 48:12). Onesimus   The runaway slave of Philemon of Colossae whom Paul converted to Christianity and reconciled to his master (Philem. 8–21; Col. 4:7–9). oracle   1. A divine message or utterance (Rom. 3:2; Heb. 5:12; 1 Pet. 4:11) or the person through whom it is conveyed (Acts 7:38). 2. An authoritative communication, such as that from a wise person (Prov. 31:1; 2 Sam. 16:23). 3. The inner sanctum of the Jerusalem Temple (1 Kings 6:5–6; 7:49; 8:6–8; Ps. 28:2). 4. The supposedly inspired words of a priest or priestess at such shrines as Delphi in ancient Greece and Cumae in Italy. original sin   The concept that the entire human race has inherited from the first man (Adam) a tendency to sin. Some theologians, such as Augustine and Calvin, argued that humanity is born totally corrupt. The doctrine is based partly on an extremist interpretation of Romans 5:12. orthodoxy   Literally "correct opinion," holding beliefs or doctrines established by a religious or political authority. Palestine   A strip of land bordering the eastern Mediterranean Sea, lying south of Syria, north of the Sinai Peninsula, and west of the Arabian Desert. During the patriarchal period, it was known as Canaan (Gen. 12:6–7; 15:18–21). Named for the Philistines, it was first called Palestine by the Greek historian Herodotus about 450 BCE. parable   A short fictional narrative that compares something familiar to an unexpected spiritual value; from the Greek parabole, meaning "a placing beside," "a comparison." In the Synoptic Gospels, Jesus typically uses a commonplace object or action to illustrate a religious principle (Matt. 13:3–53; 22:1; 24:32; Mark 4:2–3; 13:28; Luke 8:4–18; 13:18–21; 21:29). A recurrent tradition held that Jesus used parables to prevent most of his hearers from understanding his message (Matt. 13:10–15; Mark 4:10–12; Luke 8: 9–10). Paraclete   A Greek term meaning "an advocate," used to denote the Holy Spirit in the Gospel of John as well as to denote the abiding spiritual presence of the risen Jesus. Paraclete is variously translated as "Comforter," "Helper," "Advocate," or "Spirit of Truth" ( John 7:39; 14:12, 16–18; 15:26; 16:7; see also 1 John 2:1). paradise   Literally, a "park" or walled garden, the name applied to Eden (Gen. 2:8–17) and in post–Hebrew Bible times to the abode of the righteous dead, of which the lower part housed souls awaiting resurrection and the higher was the permanent home of the just. It is possible that Jesus referred to the lower paradise in his words to the thief on the cross (Luke 23:43); Paul's reference to being "caught up" into paradise may refer to the third of the seven heavens postulated in later Jewish eschatology (as in the books of Enoch) (2 Cor. 12:2–5). John's vision of the tree of life in "the garden of God" (Rev. 2:7; 22:1–3) depicts an earthlike heaven. Parousia   The Second Coming, or reappearance, of Christ, commonly regarded as his return to judge the world, punish the wicked, and redeem the saved. The Greek term means "being by" or "being near." The Parousia is a major concept in apocalyptic Christianity (Matt. 24–25; Mark 13; Luke 21; 1 and 2 Thess.; 2 Pet. 2–3; Rev.); but see also John 14:25–29, which emphasizes Jesus' continued spiritual presence rather than an eschatological apparition. Passion   The term commonly used to denote Jesus' suffering and death (Acts 1:3). Passover   An annual Jewish observance commemorating Israel's last night of bondage in Egypt, when the Angel of Death "passed over" Israelite homes marked with the blood of a sacrificial lamb to destroy the firstborn of every Egyptian household (Exod. 12:1–51). Beginning the seven-day Feast of Unleavened Bread, it is a ritual meal eaten on Nisan 14 (March–April) and includes roast lamb, unleavened bread, and bitter herbs (Exod. 12:15–20; 13:3–10; Lev. 23:5; Num. 9:5; 28:16; Deut. 16:1). According to the Synoptics, Jesus' Last Supper with the Twelve was a Passover celebration (Matt. 26; Mark 14; Luke 22) and the model for Christian communion (the Eucharist) (1 Cor. 11:17–27). pastoral epistles   New Testament books of 1 and 2 Timothy and Titus, presumably written by the apostle Paul to two of his fellow ministers (pastors) but believed by modern scholars to have been composed by an anonymous disciple of Pauline thought living in the early to mid-second century CE. Patmos   A small Aegean island off the coast of western Asia Minor (Turkey) where John, author of Revelation, was exiled by the emperor Domitian about 95 CE (Rev. 1:9). Paul   The most influential apostle and missionary of the mid-first-century church and author of seven or nine New Testament letters. Saul of Tarsus was born in the capital of the Asia Minor province of Cilicia (Acts 9:11; 21:39; 22:3) into a family of Pharisees (Acts 23:6) of the tribe of Benjamin (Phil. 3:5) and had both Roman and Taurean citizenship (Acts 22:28). Suddenly converted to Christianity after persecuting early Christians (Acts 7:55–8:3; 9:1–30; 22:1–21; 26:1–23; 1 Cor. 9:1; 15:8; Gal. 1:11–24; Eph. 3:3; Phil. 3:12), he undertook at least three international missionary tours, presenting defenses of the new faith before Jewish and Gentile authorities (Acts 13:1–28:31). His emphasis on the insufficiency of the Mosaic Law for salvation (Gal. 3–5; Rom. 4–11) and the superiority of faith to Law (Rom. 4–11) and his insistence that Gentiles be admitted to the church without observing Jewish legal restrictions (Gal. 2; 5; Rom. 7–8) were decisive in determining the future development of the new religion. He was probably martyred in Rome about 64–65 CE. Pella   A Gentile city in Palestine east of the Jordan River, to which tradition says that Jesus' family and other Jewish Christians fled during the Jewish Revolt against Rome (66–73 CE). No writings from the Palestinian Christians survive, so the fate of the Pella community is not known. Pentateuch   he first five books of the Hebrew Bible, the Torah; from a Greek work meaning "five scrolls." Pentecost   1. Also known as the Feast of Weeks (Exod. 34:22; Deut. 16:10), the Feast of Harvest (Exod. 23:16), and the Day of the First Fruits (Num. 28:26), a one-day celebration held fifty days after Passover at the juncture of May and June. 2. The occasion of the outpouring of the Holy Spirit on early Christians assembled in Jerusalem (Acts 2:1–41), regarded as the spiritual baptism of the church. pericope   In form criticism, a literary unit (a saying, anecdote, parable, or brief narrative) that forms a complete entity in itself and is attached to its context by later editorial commentary. Many of Jesus' pronouncements probably circulated independently as pericopes before they were incorporated into the written Gospel records. pesher   In Hebrew, an analysis or interpretation of Scripture. The term is applied to the commentaries (persherim) found among the Dead Sea Scrolls. Peter   The most prominent of Jesus' twelve chief disciples, also known as Simon (probably his surname), Simeon (Symeon), and Cephas (the Aramaic equivalent of petros, meaning "rock" or "stone") ( John 1: 40–42). The son of Jonas or John (Matt. 16:17; John 1:42; 21:15–17), brother of the apostle Andrew, and a native of Bethsaida, a fishing village on the Sea of Galilee ( John 1:44), he was called by Jesus to be "a fisher of men" (Matt. 4:18–20; Mark 1:16–18; Luke 5:1–11). The first to recognize Jesus as the Messiah (Matt. 16:13–20; Mark 8:27–30; Luke 9:18–22), Peter later denied him three times (Matt. 26:69–75; Mark 14:66–72; Luke 22:54–62; John 18:15–18). Commanded to "feed [the resurrected Jesus'] sheep" ( John 21:15–19), Peter became a leader of the Jerusalem church (Acts 1:15–26; 2:14–42; 15:6–12) and miracle worker (Acts 3:1–10). He was instrumental in bringing the first Gentiles into the church (Acts 10–11), although Paul regarded him as a conservative obstacle to this movement (Gal. 2:11–14). He appeared before the Sanhedrin (Acts 4:1–12) and was miraculously rescued from at least one imprisonment (Acts 5:17–42; 12:1–19). A married man (Matt. 8:14; Mark 1:30; Luke 4:8; 1 Cor. 9:5), Peter was to be the "rock" on which Jesus' church was built (Matt. 16:16–20). Although some scholars regard him as the source of 1 Peter, virtually all experts deny Petrine authorship to the second epistle bearing his name. He was probably martyred under Nero about 64–65 CE. Pharisees   A leading religious movement or sect in Judaism during the last two centuries BCE and the first two centuries CE. The Pharisees were probably descendants of the Hasidim who opposed Antiochus IV's attempts to destroy the Mosaic faith. Their name may derive from the Hebrew perisha (separated) because their rigorous observance of the Law bred a separatist view toward common life. Although the New Testament typically presents them as Jesus' opponents, their views on resurrection and the afterlife anticipated Christian teachings. The "seven woes" against the Pharisees appear in Matthew 23:13–32. Paul was a Pharisee (Acts 23:6; 26:5; Phil. 3:5). Philemon   A citizen of Colossae whose runaway slave, Onesimus, Paul converted to Christianity (Philem. 5; 10; 16; 19). Philip   1. King of Macedonia (359–336 BCE), father of Alexander the Great (1 Macc. 1:1; 6:2). 2. One of the Twelve, a man of Bethsaida in Galilee (Matt. 10:3; Mark 3:18; Luke 6:14; John 1:43–49; 12:21–22; 14:8–9; Acts 1:12–14). 3. An evangelist of the Jerusalem church who was an administrator (Acts 6:1–6), preacher (Acts 8:4–8), and the converter of Simon the sorcerer (Acts 8:9–13) and of an Ethiopian eunuch (Acts 8:26–39). Paul visited him at Caesarea (Acts 21:8–15). 4. A son of Herod the Great and Palestinian tetrarch (4 BCE–34 CE) (Luke 3:1). Philip   A son of Herod the Great and Palestinian tetrarch (4 BCE–34 CE) (Luke 3:1). Philippi   A city of eastern Macedonia, the first European center to receive the Christian message (Acts 16:10–40). Philippi became the apostle Paul's favorite church (Acts 20:6; Phil. 4:16; 2 Cor. 11:9); it is the one to which his letter to the Philippians is addressed. Philo Judaeus   The most influential philosopher of Hellenistic Judaism. Philo was a Greek-educated Jew living in Alexandria, Egypt (c. 20 BCE–50 CE), who promoted a method of interpreting the Hebrew Bible allegorically (which may have influenced Paul in such passages as 1 Cor. 10:4 and Gal. 4:24, as well as the authors of the Fourth Gospel and Hebrews). His doctrine of the Logos (the divine creative Word) anticipated the prologue to the Gospel of John. Phoebe   A servant or deacon of the church at Cenchrae, a port of Corinth, whose good works Paul commends in Romans 16:1–2. Pilate, Pontius   The Roman prefect (governor) of Judea (26–36 CE) who presided at Jesus' trial for sedition against Rome and sentenced him to be crucified (Matt. 27:1–26; Mark 15:1–15; Luke 3:1; 13:1; 23:1–25; John 18:28–19:22; Acts 3:13; 13:28; 1 Tim. 6:13). Plato   Athenian philosopher (427-347 BCE) who taught that the material world is only a flawed reflection of a perfect spiritual realm, from which the human soul descends to be born in a mortal body and to which it returns for judgment after death. polytheism   Belief in more than one god, the most common form of religion in the ancient world. predestination   The act of foreordaining or predetermining by divine decree the ultimate destiny of an individual or a people, a theological doctrine asserting the absolute, irresistible power and control of God. In the biblical tradition, particularly in apocalyptic literature, both divine predetermination of events and the individual's freedom of choice seem to operate simultaneously. Prisca (Priscilla)   The wife of Aquila and a leading member of the early church (Acts 18:18; Rom. 16:3; 2 Tim. 4:19). proconsul   A Roman governor or administrator of a province or territory, such as Gallio, proconsul of Achaia, before whom Paul appeared (Acts 18:12). procurator   The Roman title of the governor of a region before it became an administrative province. During the reigns of Augustus and Tiberius, Judea was governed by a prefect, the most famous of whom was Pontius Pilate. The office was upgraded to the level of procurator under Claudius. Promised Land   Popular term for the territory of Canaan that Yahweh vowed to give Abraham's heirs in perpetuity (Gen. 15:5–21; 17:1–8), traditionally the land area embraced in David's kingdom. Pseudepigrapha   1. Literally, books falsely ascribed to eminent biblical figures of the past, such as Enoch, Noah, Moses, or Isaiah. 2. A collection of religious books outside the Hebrew Bible canon or Apocrypha that were composed in Hebrew, Aramaic, or Greek from about 250 BCE to 200 CE. pseudonymity   A literary practice, common among Hellenistic-Jewish and early Christian writers, of writing or publishing a book in the name of a famous religious figure of the past. Thus, an anonymous author of about 168 BCE ascribed his work to Daniel, who supposedly lived during the 500s BCE. The pastoral epistles, 2 Peter, James, and Jude are thought to be pseudonymous books written in the mid-second century CE but attributed to eminent disciples connected with the first-century Jerusalem church. Ptolemaic dynasty   The royal dynasty that was established by Alexander's general Ptolemy I and that ruled Egypt from about 323 to 30 BCE. Ptolemaic Egypt controlled Palestine until shortly after 200 BCE. Ptolemy   1. Ptolemy I (323–285 BCE), a Macedonian general who assumed ruler-ship of Egypt after the death of Alexander the Great. The Ptolemaic dynasty controlled Egypt and its dominions until 30 BCE, when the Romans came to power. 2. Ptolemy II (285–246 BCE), Hellenistic Egyptian ruler who supposedly authorized the translation of the Hebrew Bible into Greek (the Septuagint). purity laws   Regulations defining the nature, cause, or state of physical, ritual, or moral contamination; according to the Book of Leviticus and other parts of the Torah, ritual impurity results from a variety of activities, including the eating of forbidden foods such as shellfish and physical contact with impure persons or objects, such as a corpse, a leper, or a menstruating woman, all of which render violators "unclean" and hence socially unacceptable. The Torah also prescribes elaborate purification rites to restore ritually impure persons to participation in the community, a practice that the Essenes emphasized in their communities. Q   An abbreviation for Quelle, the German term for "source," a hypothetical document that many scholars believe contained a collection of Jesus' sayings (logia). The theory of its existence was formed to explain material common to both Matthew and Luke but absent from Mark's Gospel. It is assumed that Matthew and Luke drew on a single source (Q ), assembled about 50–70 CE, for this shared material. realized eschatology   A belief that events usually associated with the eschaton (world End), such as divine judgment and resurrection to eternal life, are even now realized or fulfilled by Jesus' spiritual presence among his followers. (See John 5:24–25; 11:26; 14:12–21; 16:7–14). redaction criticism   A method of analyzing written texts to define the purpose and literary procedures of editors (redactors) who compile and edit older documents, transforming shorter works into longer ones, as did the redactors who collected and ordered independent traditions about Jesus to compose the present Gospels. Roman Empire   The international, multicultural government centered in Rome that conquered and administered the entire Mediterranean region from Gaul (France and southern Germany) in the northwest to Egypt in the southeast. The empire ruled the Jewish state in Palestine from 63 BCE until Hadrian's destruction of Jerusalem during the second Jewish war (132–135 CE). Sabbath   The seventh day of the Jewish week, sacred to Yahweh and dedicated to rest and worship. Enjoined upon Israel as a sign of Yahweh's covenant (Exod. 20:8–11; 23:12; 31:12–17; Lev. 23:3; 24:1–9; Deut. 5:12–15), the Sabbath was also a memorial of Yahweh's repose after six days of creation. Jesus was frequently criticized for his liberal attitude toward the Sabbath, which he contended was made for humanity's benefit (Matt. 12:1–12; Mark 2:23–28; Luke 6:1–9; John 5:18). Sadducees   An ultraconservative Jewish sect of the first century BCE and first century CE composed largely of wealthy and politically influential landowners. Unlike the Pharisees, the Sadducees recognized only the Torah as binding and rejected the Prophets and the Writings, denying both resurrection and a judgment in the afterlife. An aristocracy controlling the priesthood and Temple, they cooperated with Roman rule of Palestine, a collusion that made them unpopular with the common people (Matt. 3:7; 16:1; 22:23; Mark 12:18; Luke 20:27; Acts 4:1; 5:17; 23:6). Samaritans   Inhabitants of the city or territory of Samaria, the central region of Palestine lying west of the Jordan River. According to a probably biased southern account in 2 Kings 17, the Samaritans were regarded by orthodox Jews as descendants of foreigners who had intermarried with survivors of the northern kingdom's fall to Assyria (721 BCE). Separated from the rest of Judaism after about 400 BCE, they had a Bible consisting of their own edition of the Pentateuch (Torah) and a temple on Mount Gerizim, which was later destroyed by John Hyrcanus (128 BCE) (Matt. 10:5; Luke 9:52; John 4:20–21). Jesus discussed correct worship with a woman at Jacob's well in Samaria ( John 4:5–42) and made a "good Samaritan" the hero of a famous parable (Luke 10: 29–37). Sanhedrin   The supreme judicial council of the Jews from about the third century BCE until the Romans destroyed Jerusalem in 70 CE. Its deliberations were led by the High Priest (2 Chron. 19:5–11). Jesus was tried before the Sanhedrin and condemned on charges of blasphemy (Matt. 26:59; Mark 14:55; 15:1; Luke 22:66; John 11:47). Stephen was stoned as a result of its verdict (Acts 6:12–15). Peter, John, and other disciples appeared before its court (Acts 4:5–21; 5:17–41), and Paul was charged there with violating the Mosaic Torah (Acts 22). Sarah   The wife and half-sister of Abraham (Gen. 11:29; 16:1; 20:12). Sarah traveled with Abraham from Ur to Haran and ultimately to Canaan and after a long period of barrenness bore him a single son, Isaac (Gen. 18:9–15; 21:1–21). In Galatians 4:22–31, Paul refers to Sarah as the "free-born woman" who symbolizes the heavenly Jerusalem. Satan   In the Hebrew Bible, "the satan" appears as a prosecutor in the heavenly court among "the sons of God" ( Job 1–2; Zech. 3:1–3) and only later as a tempter (1 Chron. 21:1; cf. 2 Sam. 24:1). Although the Hebrew Bible says virtually nothing about Satan's origin, the pseudepigraphal writings contain much legendary material about his fall from heaven and the establishment of a hierarchy of demons and devils. By the time the New Testament was written, he was believed to head a kingdom of evil and to seek the corruption of all people, including the Messiah (Matt. 4:1–11; Luke 4:1–13). Satan ("the opposer" or the "adversary") is also "the evil one" (Matt. 6:13; 13:19; Eph. 6:16; 1 John 2:13; 5:18–19), "the devil" (Matt. 4:1; 13:39; 25:41; John 8:44; Eph. 4:27), and the primordial serpent who tempted Eve (Rev. 12:9). Savior   One who saves from danger or destruction, a term applied to Yahweh in the Hebrew Bible (Ps. 106:21; Isa. 43:1–13; 63:79; Hos. 13:4) and to Jesus in the New Testament (Luke 2:11; John 4:42; Acts 5:31; 13:23; Phil. 3:20; 1 Tim. 4:10; 2 Tim. 1:10; 1 John 4:14). scribes   Professional copyists who recorded commercial, royal, and religious texts and served as clerks, secretaries, and archivists at Israel's royal court and Temple (2 Kings 12:10; 19:2; Ezra 4:8; 2 Chron. 34:8; Jer. 36:18). After the Jews' return from exile, professional teachers or "wise men" preserved and interpreted the Mosaic Torah (Ezra 7:6; Neh. 7:73–8:18). In the New Testament, scribes are often linked with Pharisees as Jesus' opponents (Matt. 7:29; 23:2, 13; Luke 11:44) who conspired to kill him (Mark 14:43; 15:1; Luke 22:2; 23:10), although some became his followers (Matt. 8:19; see also Acts 6:12; 23:9; 1 Cor. 1:20). scripture   A writing or collection of documents that a religion holds to be sacred and binding upon its adherents. The Hebrew Bible (Old Testament) is Scripture to both Jews and Christians; only Christians accord the status of Scripture to the New Testament. Second Coming   The return of the risen Jesus to earth; also called the Parousia, from the Greek Parousia (a standing by). The Synoptic authors use this term to denote Jesus' supernatural reappearance to establish the kingdom of God (Matt. 24; Mark 13; Luke 21). Seleucus   Macedonian general (ruled 312–280 BCE) of Alexander the Great who founded a ruling dynasty in Syria, with Anitoch as its capital. After defeating the Ptolemies of Egypt, the Seleucid dynasty controlled Palestine from 198 to 165 BCE, after which the Maccabean Revolt eventually drove the Seleucid forces from Judea (142 BCE). Septuagint (LXX)   A Greek edition of the Hebrew Bible traditionally attributed to seventy or seventy two Palestinian scholars during the reign of Ptolemy II (285–246 BCE), but actually the work of several generations of Alexandrine translators, begun about 250 BCE and not completed until the first century CE. The later additions to the Septuagint were deleted from the standard Hebrew Bible (Masoretic Text) but included in the Old Testament as the Apocrypha. serpent   A common symbol in Near Eastern fertility cults, the original tempter of humanity (Gen. 3–4). Revelation 12:9 identifies the serpent with the devil and Satan (the primordial Dragon). Shema   Judaism's supreme declaration of monotheistic faith, expressed in the words of Deuteronomy 6:4–9 beginning "Listen (Hebrew, shema, "hear"), Israel, Yahweh our God is the one Yahweh." The complete Shema also includes Deuteronomy 11:13–21 and Numbers 14:37–41 (cf. Mark 12:29–34). Sheol   According to the Hebrew Bible, the subterranean region to which the "shades" of all the dead descended, a place of intense gloom, hopelessness, and virtual unconsciousness for its inhabitants. The term was translated Hades in the Greek Septuagint. In later Hellenistic times, it was regarded as an abode of the dead awaiting resurrection (Gen. 42:38; 1 Sam. 2:6; Job 7:9; 14:13–14; 26:6; Pss. 6:5; 16:10; 55:15; 139:8; Prov. 27:20; Eccles. 9:10; Isa. 14:15; 28:15; 38:10, 18; Hos. 13:14; Jon. 2:2; cf. references to Hades in Matt. 16:18; Luke 10:15; Acts 2:31; Rev. 1:18; 20:15). It is not the same theological concept as hell or Gehenna (Matt. 10:28; 23:33; Mark 9:43; Luke 12:5). Signs Gospel   A hypothetical early Christian document describing seven of Jesus' miraculous acts; according to one theory, it forms the principal narrative source for John's Gospel. Silas   The Semitic, perhaps Aramean, name of an early Christian prophet (Acts 15:32), otherwise called Silvanus, who accompanied Barnabas and Paul to Antioch with decrees from the Jerusalem council (Acts 15:1–35) and who joined Paul on his second missionary journey (Acts 16–18; 1 Thess. 1:1, 2 Thess. 1:1). He may have been the author of 1 Peter (1 Pet. 5:12). Simeon   1. Another name for Simon Peter (Acts 15:14; 2 Pet. 1:1). 2. The devout old man who recognized the infant Jesus as the promised Messiah (Luke 2:22–34). simile   A comparison using "like" or "as," usually to illustrate an unexpected resemblance between a familiar object and novel idea. Jesus' parables about the kingdom of God are typically cast as similes (Matt. 13: 31–35, 44–50; Mark 4:26–32; Luke 13:18–19). Simon Magus   A Samaritan sorcerer ("magus") who tried to buy the power of the Holy Spirit from Peter (Acts 8:9–24); thought by some to be the forerunner of the Faust figure. The sale of church offices is known as simony, after Simon Magus. Simon   The name of several New Testament figures: 1. Simon Peter (Matt. 4:18; 10:2). 2. One of the Twelve Apostles, Simon the Zealot, perhaps so called for his religious zeal (Matt. 10:4; Mark 3:18; Luke 6:15; Acts 1:13). 3. One of Jesus' "brothers" (Matt. 13:55; Mark 6:3). 4. A leper whom Jesus cured (Mark 14:3–9). 5. The man from Cyrene in North Africa who was forced to carry Jesus' cross (Mark 15:21). 6. A Pharisee who entertained Jesus in his home (Luke 7:36–50). 7. Simon Iscariot, father of Judas the traitor ( John 6:71; 13:26). 8. A leather tanner of Joppa with whom Peter stayed (Acts 9:43; 10). Socrates   Athenian philosopher (c. 469-399 BCE) and friend and teacher of Plato, he was condemned to death for questioning assumptions deemed essential to maintain proper religious beliefs, civic order, and security. In Plato's dialogues, he is always the chief speaker. Sodom   Along with Gomorrah, Admah, Zebolim, and Zoar (Gen. 13:10–12; 14:2; Deut. 29:23), one of the "five cities of the plain" (near the south shore of the Dead Sea) destroyed by a great cataclysm attributed to Yahweh (Gen. 19:1–29). Later Bible writers cite it as a symbol of divine judgment upon wickedness (Isa. 3:9; Lam. 4:6; Matt. 10:15; 2 Pet. 2:6; Jude 7; Rev. 11:8). Solomon   Son of David and Bathsheba and Israel's third king (c. 961–922 BCE) (2 Sam. 12:24–25), he was famous for his wisdom (1 Kings 3:5–28). Son of Man   1. A Hebrew Bible phrase used to denote a human being (Pss. 8:4; 80:17; 144:3; 146:3; Isa. 56:2; Jer. 51:43), including a plural usage (Pss. 31:19; 33:13; Prov. 8:4; Eccles. 3:18–19; 8:11; 9:12). The phrase is characteristic of the Book of Ezekiel, where it is commonly used to indicate the prophet himself (Ezek. 2:1). 2. In Daniel 7:12–14, a reference—"one like a [son of ] man"—to Israel itself or to a divinely appointed future ruler of Israel, although this figure is not given specific messianic significance. 3. In certain pseudepigraphal writings, particularly the Similitudes of the Book of Enoch, he who serves as Yahweh's agent on the coming Day of Judgment, variously called "the Elect One," "the Anointed One," and "the Son of Man." 4. In the Gospels, a phrase always spoken by Jesus and in most cases applied to himself (Matt. 8:20; 9:6; 11:19; 12:8; 16:27–28; 19:28; 24:30; 28:31; Mark 2:28; 8:38; 9:31; 10:45; 13:26; Luke 12:8–10; 18:8; 21:27; 22:22; John 3:14). Outside the Gospels, it is used only once (Acts 7:56), although the author of Revelation echoes Daniel 7:13 (Rev. 14:14). source criticism   The analysis of a document to discover its written sources. See also form criticism. Stephen   A Hellenistic Jew of Jerusalem who was stoned for his Christian preaching (Acts 6:8–60), thus becoming the first martyr of the early church. The name means "royal" or "crown." symbol   In its broadest usage, anything that stands for something else; from the Greek symbolon, a "token" or "sign," and symballein, to "throw together" or "compare." For example, the star of David is a symbol of Judaism, and the cross is a symbol of Christianity. The use of symbols characterizes prophetic and apocalyptic writing. In Daniel, for example, wild beasts symbolize pagan nations; in Ezekiel, Yahweh's presence is symbolized by his radiant "glory." syncretism   The blending of different religions, a term biblical scholars typically apply to the mingling of Canaanite rites and customs with the Israelites' Mosaic faith. Synoptic Problem   A term referring to scholars' attempts to discover the literary relationship among the three strikingly similar Synoptic Gospels: Mark, Matthew, and Luke. Tabernacle   The portable tent-shrine, elaborately decorated, that housed the ark of the covenant (Exod. 25–31; 35–40; Num. 7–9) from the Exodus to the building of Solomon's Temple (1 Kings 6–8); used in both the Hebrew and Christian Bibles as a symbol of God's presence with humanity (Num. 9:5; Deut. 31:15; Pss. 15:1; 43:3; 61:4; 132:7; Isa. 4:6; 33:20; Hos. 12:9; Acts 7:46; Heb. 8:2; 9:11; 2 Pet. 1:14; Rev. 21:3). Talmud   A huge collection of Jewish religious traditions consisting of two parts: (1) the Mishnah (written editions of ancient oral interpretations of the Torah), published in Palestine by Judah ha-Nasi (died c. 220 CE) and his disciples, and (2) the Gemara, extensive commentaries on the Mishnah. The Palestinian version of the Talmud, which is incomplete, was produced about 450 CE; the Babylonian Talmud, nearly four times as long, was finished about 500 CE. Both Talmuds contain Mishnah and Gemara. Tarsus   Capital of the Roman province of Cilicia (southeastern Turkey) and birthplace of Paul (Saul) (Acts 9:11; 11:25; 21:39; 22:3); a thriving commercial center in New Testament times. Temple   1. The imposing structure built by King Solomon (using Phoenician architects and craftsmen) on Mount Zion in Jerusalem to house the ark of the covenant in its innermost room (the Holy of Holies) (1 Kings 5:15–9:25). Later recognized as the only authorized center for sacrifice and worship of Yahweh, it was destroyed by Nebuchadnezzar's troops in 587 BCE (2 Kings 25:8–17; 2 Chron. 36:18–19). 2. The Second Temple, rebuilt by Jews returned from the Babylonian exile under Governor Zerubabbel, dedicated about 515 BCE (Ezra 1:1–11; 3:1–13; 4:24–6:22; Hag. 1–2; Zech. 1:1–8:13). 3. Herod's splendid Temple replaced the inferior edifice of Zerubbabel's time and took nearly a half-century to complete ( John 2:20). Jesus, who visited the Temple as a child (Luke 2:22–38, 41–50) and often taught there (Matt. 21:23–24:1; Luke 20:1; John 7:14–52; 10:22–39), assaulted its moneychangers (Matt. 21:12–17; Mark 11:15–19; Luke 19:45–46; John 2:13–22) and prophesied its destruction (Matt. 24:1–2; Mark 13:1–4; Luke 21:5–7), which was fulfilled when the Romans sacked Jerusalem in 70 CE. Until that event, the apostles continued to preach and worship there (Acts 3:1–26; 5:42; 21:26–22:29). testament   Either of the two main divisions of the Bible—the Old Testament (canonical Hebrew Scriptures) and the New Testament (Christian Greek Scriptures); from the Latin for "covenant." theodicy   A literary work that attempts to explain how an all-good, all-powerful god can permit the existence of evil and undeserved suffering; from a Greek term combining "god" and "justice." Job, 2 Peter, and 2 Esdras contain notable theodicies. theology   The study and interpretation of concepts about God's nature, will, and intentions toward humanity; from the Greek theos, meaning "god," and logos, reason. Theophilus   The otherwise unknown man to whom the Gospel of Luke and the Book of Acts are addressed. He may have been a Roman official who became a Christian. Tiberius (Tiberius Claudius Nero)   Stepson of Augustus and second emperor of Rome (14–37 CE). According to Luke 3:1, Jesus came to John for baptism in the fifteenth year of Tiberius's reign. Except for in Luke 2:1, he is the Caesar referred to in the Gospels (Matt. 22:17; Mark 12:14; Luke 20:22; John 19:12). Timothy   Younger friend and fellow missionary of Paul, who called him "beloved son" (1 Cor. 4:17; 1 Tim. 1:2–28; 2 Tim. 1:2), Timothy was the son of a Greek father and a devout Jewish mother (Acts 16:1; 2 Tim. 1:5). To please the Jews, Paul circumcised Timothy before taking him on his second missionary tour (Acts 16:1–4; 20:1–4). Paul later sent him to Macedonia (1 Thess. 3:6) and thence to Corinth to quiet the dissension there (Acts 19:22; 1 Cor. 4:17; 16:11), which he failed to do (2 Cor. 7:6, 13–14; 8:6, 16, 23; 12:18). The picture of Timothy in the pastoral epistles seems irreconcilable with what is known of him from Acts and Paul's genuine letters. tithe   A tenth of one's income paid in money, crops, or animals to support a government (1 Sam. 8:15–17) or religion (Lev. 27:30–33; Num. 18:24–28; Deut. 12: 17–19; 14:22–29; Neh. 10:36–38); also, to pay such a part. Jesus apparently regarded tithing as an obligation of his people (Luke 11:42; 18:12). Titus   A Greek whom Paul converted and who became a companion on his missionary journeys (2 Cor. 8:23; Gal. 2:1–3; Tit. 1:4). Titus effected a reconciliation between Paul and the Corinthians (2 Cor. 7:5–7; 8:16–24; 12:18). A post-Pauline writer makes him the type of the Christian pastor (Tit. 1–3). Torah   The Pentateuch (the first five books of the Hebrew Bible) and in a general sense all the Hebrew canonical writings, which are traditionally regarded as a direct oracle, or revelation, from Yahweh. Torah is a Hebrew term usually translated as "law," "instruction," or "teaching." Trajan (Marcus Ulpius Nerva Trajanus)   Emperor of Rome (98–117 CE) who was born in Spain about 53 CE, became a successful military leader, and brought the Roman Empire to its greatest geographical extent, annexing Dacia, Armenia, Mesopotamia, Assyria, and Arabia. Probably following the policies of Vespasian (69–79 CE), he conducted a persecution of Christians, although he wrote to Pliny the Younger, governor of Bithynia, that Christians were not to be sought out or denounced anonymously. Transfiguration   According to the Synoptic Gospels, a supernatural transformation of Jesus into a being of light, witnessed by Jesus' three closest disciples—Peter, James, and John—on an isolated mountaintop. In this awesome revelation of Jesus' divinity, the biblical figures Elijah and Moses also appear (Matt. 17:1–13; Mark 9:2–13; Luke 9:28–36). Trinity   The post–New Testament doctrine that God exists as three divine Persons in One—Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. After heated ecclesiastical debate on the subject had seriously divided the church, Constantine, the first Christian emperor of Rome but then unbaptized, called a council of church leaders in Nicaea to define the doctrine (325 CE). The council decreed the orthodoxy of the trinitarian formula, so that the mystery of Trinity in unity (although still opposed by Arian Christians) eventually became central to the Christian faith (Matt. 28:19–20; 2 Cor. 13:14; Gal. 1:1–5). Vespasian   Emperor of Rome (69–79 CE) who led Roman legions into Judea during the Jewish Revolt (66–73 CE), the siege of Jerusalem passing to his son Titus when Vespasian became emperor. Vulgate   Jerome's Latin translation of the Bible (late fourth century CE), to which the Apocrypha was later added and which became the official edition of Roman Catholicism. wisdom literature   Biblical works dealing primarily with practical and ethical behavior and ultimate religious questions, such as the problem of evil. The books include Proverbs, Job, Ecclesiastes, Ecclesiasticus, and the Wisdom of Solomon. Habakkuk, 2 Esdras, and the New Testament Book of James also have characteristics of Wisdom writing. Word   1. The "word" or "oracle" of Yahweh, a phrase characteristic of the Hebrew prophets, typically referring to a divine pronouncement, judgment, or statement of purpose that the prophet delivers in his God's name. 2. The pre-incarnate Jesus ( John 1:1–3). See also Logos. Yahweh   A translation of the sacred name of Israel's God, represented almost 7,000 times in the canonical Hebrew Bible by the four consonants of the tetragrammaton (YHWH). According to Exodus 6:2–4, it was revealed for the first time to Moses at the burning bush; according to another account, it was used from the time of Enosh before the Flood (Gen. 4:26). Scholars have offered various interpretations of the origin and meaning of the divine name. According to a widely accepted theory, it is derived from the Hebrew verb "to be" and means "He is" or "He causes to be," implying that Yahweh is the maker of events and shaper of history. Zealots   A fiercely nationalistic Jewish party dedicated to freeing Judea from foreign domination that coalesced about 67–68 CE during the great rebellion against Rome (66–73 CE). According to Josephus's possibly biased account, their intransigence led to the destruction of Jerusalem and the Temple. The Simon of Luke 6:15 and Acts 1:13 is called a "Zealot." Zechariah   1. A Judean priest married to Elizabeth, a descendant of Aaron, whose long, childless marriage was blessed in old age by the birth of the future John the Baptist (Luke 1:5–25, 57–80; 3:2). A vision foretelling the birth rendered Zechariah temporarily paralyzed, but he recovered his speech in time to name the child and to utter a prayer of thanksgiving—the Benedictus (Luke 1:67–79). 2. A Jewish martyr mentioned in Jesus' phrase "from Abel to Zecharias" (Matt. 23:35; Luke 11:51), usually identified with Zechariah, son of Jehoiada in 2 Chronicles 24:20–24. Zeus   In Greek mythology, the son of Cronus and Rhea, king of the Olympian gods, and patron of civic order. A personification of storm and other heavenly powers, he ruled by wielding a thunderbolt. The Romans identified him with Jupiter ( Jove). Some people of Lystra compared Barnabas to Zeus and Paul to Hermes (Acts 14:12). The erection of a statue of Zeus in the Jerusalem Temple courts helped spark the Maccabean revolt (c. 168 BCE). Zoroastrianism   A dualistic religion established by the east Iranian prophet Zoroaster about the late sixth century BCE. Zoroaster saw the universe as a duality of Spirit and Matter, Light and Darkness, Good and Evil. The present age witnesses the conflict between Ahura-Mazda, a deity of light, and his evil spirit opponents. This conflict eventually will culminate in a cosmic battle in which Good finally triumphs. Zoroastrian ideas about angels, demons, and the end of the present world appear to have influenced both Jewish and Christian writers, particularly in the realm of apocalyptic thought.
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