The Big Picture: Chapter Overview

Psychology is a science dedicated to the study of behavior and mental processes. In this chapter you are introduced to the history of this science, the types of research that are used in psychology, a variety of contemporary perspectives in psychology, and an explanation of the benefits of studying psychology.

There are three concepts important to the definition of psychology: science, behavior, and mental processes. Psychologists use scientific methods to observe, describe, predict, and explain behaviors and mental processes. Behaviors are actions that can be directly observed, while mental processes are experiences that cannot be observed directly, such as thoughts and feelings.

The history of psychology is rooted in philosophy, biology, and physiology. Charles Darwin strongly influenced the origins of psychology by proposing that humans are part of an evolutionary process he termed natural selection. This view led psychologists to consider the role of the environment and adaptation in psychology. In 1879, Wilhelm Wundt developed the first psychology laboratory. Wundt's approach, emphasized the importance of conscious thought and classification of the mind's structures. While Wundt and his adherents focused inside the mind, William James emphasized the functions of the mind in adapting to the environment.

Psychology is a science; therefore, it relies upon scientific research to study behaviors and mental processes. In comparison to personal observations and experiences, scientific research is systematic and usually requires collaboration among researchers. The scientific approach is characterized by four ideals: curiosity, skepticism, objectivity, and critical thinking. Embracing these attitudes or ideals increases the likelihood that psychological research will result in reliable and objective scientific findings.

Research in psychology is based on the scientific method and involves conceptualizing a problem, collecting data, analyzing the data, and drawing conclusions. In the process of conceptualizing the problem, the researcher chooses the research method that will better address the research topic. Psychologists rely on three basic types of research methods to perform their studies of behaviors and mental processes: descriptive, correlational, and experimental.

Descriptive methods involve systematic observations and recording of behaviors. The four types of descriptive methods discussed in Chapter One are observations, surveys and interviews, standardized tests, and case studies. Observations can take placed in natural settings or in laboratories. In naturalistic observation, the psychologist observes behavior in real-world settings and makes no attempt to manipulate or control the situation. However, many of the observations that take place in psychology occur in the laboratory, which gives the psychologist control over factors; for this reason, there are several drawbacks to this method, such as the unnatural behaviors that result from people knowing that they are being observed. An interview involves asking people questions to find out about their experiences and attitudes. One problem of interviewing people is the concern of participants to tell the interviewer what they think is socially acceptable or desirable. Surveys or questionnaires require subjects to read questions and mark their answers. Some psychologists observe behavior and mental processes by administering standardized tests. Standardized tests allow the researcher to measure some aspect of the participant's behaviors and/or mental processes, and compare each individual's outcome to others that have also performed the same test. The last descriptive method discussed in Chapter One is the case study, which provides an in-depth examination of a single individual, from which the results may not be easily generalized to other people.

The correlational method is basically a statistical procedure that allows the researcher to describe how strongly two or more events or characteristics are related. The correlation coefficient is a measure of the strength and direction of the relationship between the two factors. It is important to note that correlation does not equal causation, but can allow us to make predictions.

Unlike the correlational method, the experimental method allows psychologists to determine the causes of behaviors and mental processes. In an experiment, one or more factors are manipulated and all other factors held constant. The factor that is manipulated is called the independent variable. The behavior or mental process that is observed and measured in the experiment is called the dependent variable. In general terms, the goal of an experiment is to determine the extent to which the independent variable influences and causes the dependent variable. In experiments, researchers usually expose a number of participants to one level of the independent variable and others to another level. The group of participants whose experience is being manipulated is the known as the experimental group, while the comparison group is called the control group. In experimental research, participants are randomly assigned to experimental and control groups. One concern involves the experimenter's own bias influencing the outcome of the research; this is called experimenter bias. On the other hand, research may also be influenced by participant bias, where the research participants have beliefs about how they are expected to behave and behave according to their expectations. To control for these expectations, an experiment may be designed as a double-blind experiment, where neither the participant nor the experimenter know in which condition is the participant.

Contemporary psychologists approach the scientific study of behaviors and mental processes from a variety of perspectives and each perspective offers an important piece of the psychology puzzle. As we study these perspectives, we should keep in mind that all the approaches are valid and each has advantages and disadvantages.

Contemporary psychology perspectives can be classified into seven approaches:

1. Behavioral Approach:
1. Behaviorism. The leaders of this perspective, which dominated psychology during the first half of the 20^th century, were John Watson and B. F. Skinner. The focus is on observable responses and environmental determinants.
2. Social Cognitive Theory. A more recent development of the behaviorist approach, researched by Albert Bandura, integrates the role of environmental factors and mental processes in understanding behaviors.

2. Psychodynamic Approach. Sigmund Freud developed this perspective that focuses on the role of unconscious influences on how we think and act. Early life experiences are considered important determinants of adult psychology in this approach.
3. Cognitive Approach. The focus here is on mental processes with an emphasis on attention, perception, memory, thinking, and solving problems.
4. Behavioral Neuroscience Approach. This approach studies the biological basis of behavior and mental process, specifically focusing on the role of the nervous system.
5. Evolutionary Psychology Approach. This perspective focuses on the adaptive aspects of our psychology, how adapting to the demands of our environment has shaped our repertoire of behaviors and mental processes.
6. Sociocultural Approach. This perspective recognizes that social and cultural contexts influence our psychology, this is, how we act, think, and feel.
7. Humanistic Movement and Positive Psychology. The humanistic approach was proposed in the middle of the 20^th century. This movement was led by Maslow and Rogers. They emphasized the free will of people and their capacity for understanding and solving their own challenges. The positive psychology movement emerged at the beginning of the 21^st century and attempts to promote the study of positive psychological phenomena such as creativity, optimism, and effective social relations.

Studying psychology can help you become a wise consumer of information about psychology. The process of thinking reflectively and productively and then evaluating the evidence is called critical thinking. Critical thinkers are open-minded, intellectually curious and careful, and look for multiple explanations. People who learn about psychological research through the media also need to distinguish between group results and individual needs. Wise consumers of psychological information also avoid generalizing from a small sample and look for answers beyond a single study. You should also avoid attributing cause where none has been found, and consider the source of psychological information.

Getting the most out of this course will strongly depend on the studying strategies that you use. Based on psychological research, here are some strategies that make studying more effective. Chart monthly, weekly, and daily the class-related tasks, such as tests, and schedule the time that will be dedicated to studying. Distribute your study sessions across time--learning takes time. Minimize distractions while studying. Get an overall idea of the content of a chapter before you start reading the specifics (it would be a good idea to read this section, The Big Picture: Chapter Overview in the Study Guide, before you start reading each chapter in the textbook). Make an effort to apply the reading material to your personal experience, as these associations will increase the chances that you will remember the material in the future. Finally, review! Use alternative methods to revisit the material, such as doing the exercises at the end of the chapter, visiting the online resources that accompany the textbook, and testing yourself with the Study Guide exercises.