Glossary (See related pages) Numbers following the definitions indicate pages where the terms were identified. Consult the index for further page references. Absolute poverty   A minimum level of subsistence that no family should be expected to live below. (211) Achieved status   A social position that is attained by a person largely through his or her own efforts. (106, 200) Activity theory   An interactionist theory of aging that argues that elderly people who remain active and socially involved will be best-adjusted. (307) Adoption   In a legal sense, a process that allows for the transfer of the legal rights, responsibilities, and privileges of parenthood to a new legal parent or parents. (336) Affirmative action   Positive efforts to recruit minority group members or women for jobs, promotions, and educational opportunities. (259, 431) Ageism   A term coined by Robert N. Butler to refer to prejudice and discrimination based on a person's age. (316) Agrarian society   The most technologically advanced form of preindustrial society.Members are engaged primarily in the production of food, but increase their crop yields through technological innovations such as the plow. (116) Alienation   A condition of estrangement or disassociation from the surrounding society. (133, 423) Amalgamation   The process through which a majority group and a minority group combine to form a new group. (263) Anomie   Durkheim's term for the loss of direction felt in a society when social control of individual behavior has become ineffective. (10, 182) Anomie theory of deviance   Robert Merton's theory of deviance as an adaptation of socially prescribed goals or of the norms governing their attainment, or both. (182) Anticipatory socialization   Processes of socialization in which a person "rehearses" for future positions, occupations, and social relationships. (90) Anti-Semitism   Anti-Jewish prejudice. (272) Apartheid   A former policy of the South African government, designed to maintain the separation of Blacks and other non-Whites from the dominant Whites. (263, 531) Applied sociology   The use of the discipline of sociology with the specific intent of yielding practical applications for human behavior and organizations. (18) Argot   Specialized language used by members of a group or subculture. (69) Ascribed status   A social position that is assigned to a person by society without regard for the person's unique talents or characteristics. (105, 199) Assembling perspective   A theory of collective behavior introduced by McPhail and Miller that seeks to examine how and why people move from different points in space to a common location. (509) Asset-based community development (ABCD)   An approach to community development in which planners first identify a community's strengths and then seek to mobilize those assets. (473) Assimilation   The process through which a person forsakes his or her own cultural tradition to become part of a different culture. (263) Authority   Institutionalized power that is recognized by the people over whom it is exercised. (399) Basic sociology   Sociological inquiry conducted with the objective of gaining a more profound knowledge of the fundamental aspects of social phenomena. Also known as pure sociology. (20) Bilateral descent   A kinship system in which both sides of a person's family are regarded as equally important. (326) Bilingualism   The use of two or more languages in a particular setting, such as a workplace or schoolroom, treating each language as equally legitimate. (74) Birthrate   The number of live births per 1,000 population in a given year. Also known as the crude birthrate. (489) Black power   A political philosophy promoted by many younger Blacks in the 1960s that supported the creation of Black-controlled political and economic institutions. (266) Borderlands   The area of common culture along the border between Mexico and the United States. (240) Bourgeoisie   Karl Marx's term for the capitalist class, comprising the owners of the means of production. (203) Brain drain   The immigration to the United States and other industrialized nations of skilled workers, professionals, and technicians who are desperately needed in their home countries. (441) Bureaucracy   A component of formal organization that uses rules and hierarchical ranking to achieve efficiency. (133) Bureaucratization   The process by which a group, organization, or social movement becomes increasingly bureaucratic. (135) Capitalism   An economic system in which the means of production are held largely in private hands and the main incentive for economic activity is the accumulation of profits. (203, 415) Caste   A hereditary rank, usually religiously dictated, that tends to be fixed and immobile. (200) Causal logic   The relationship between a condition or variable and a particular consequence in which one event leads to the other. (32) Census   An enumeration, or counting, of a population. (488) Charismatic authority   Max Weber's term for power made legitimate by a leader's exceptional personal or emotional appeal to his or her followers. (399) Class   A group of people who have a similar level of wealth and income. (205) Class consciousness   In Karl Marx's view, a subjective awareness held by members of a class regarding their common vested interests and need for collective political action to bring about social change. (203) Classical theory   An approach to the study of formal organizations that views workers as being motivated almost entirely by economic rewards. (136) Class system   A social ranking based primarily on economic position in which achieved characteristics can influence mobility. (201) Clinical sociology   The use of the discipline of sociology with the specific intent of facilitating change by altering social relationships or restructuring social institutions. (20) Closed system   A social system in which there is little or no possibility of individual mobility. (216) Coalition   A temporary or permanent alliance geared toward a common goal. (132) Code of ethics   The standards of acceptable behavior developed by and for members of a profession. (41) Cognitive theory of development   Jean Piaget's theory that children's thought progresses through four stages of development. (88) Cohabitation   The practice of living together as a male-female couple without marrying. (340) Collective behavior   In the view of sociologist Neil Smelser, the relatively spontaneous and unstructured behavior of a group of people who are reacting to a common influence in an ambiguous situation. (506) Colonialism   The maintenance of political, social, economic, and cultural dominance over a people by a foreign power for an extended period. (229) Communism   As an ideal type, an economic system under which all property is communally owned and no social distinctions are made on the basis of people's ability to produce. (417) Community   A spatial or political unit of social organization that gives people a sense of belonging, based either on shared residence in a particular place or on a common identity. (461) Concentric-zone theory   A theory of urban growth devised by Ernest Burgess that sees growth in terms of a series of rings radiating from the central business district. (466) Conflict perspective   A sociological approach that assumes that social behavior is best understood in terms of conflict or tension between competing groups. (14) Conformity   Going along with peers--individuals of our own status, who have no special right to direct our behavior. (172) Contact hypothesis   An interactionist perspective which states that in cooperative circumstances, interracial contact between people of equal status will reduce prejudice. (262) Content analysis   The systematic coding and objective recording of data, guided by some rationale. (40) Control group   The subjects in an experiment who are not introduced to the independent variable by the researcher. (39) Control theory   A view of conformity and deviance that suggests that our connection to members of society leads us to systematically conform to society's norms. (176) Control variable   A factor that is held constant to test the relative impact of an independent variable. (34) Corporate welfare   Tax breaks, direct payments, and grants that the government makes to corporations. (220) Correlation   A relationship between two variables in which a change in one coincides with a change in the other. (32) Correspondence principle   A term used by Bowles and Gintis to refer to the tendency of schools to promote the values expected of individuals in each social class and to prepare students for the types of jobs typically held by members of their class. (381) Counterculture   A subculture that deliberately opposes certain aspects of the larger culture. (71) Craze   An exciting mass involvement that lasts for a relatively long period. (512) Creationism   A literal interpretation of the Bible regarding the creation of humanity and the universe, used to argue that evolution should not be presented as established scientific fact. (369) Credentialism   An increase in the lowest level of education required to enter a field. (380) Crime   A violation of criminal law for which some governmental authority applies formal penalties. (188) Cross-tabulation   A table that shows the relationship between two or more variables. (51) Crowd   A temporary gathering of people in close proximity who share a common focus or interest. (509) Cult   Due to stereotyping, this term has been abandoned by sociologists in favor of new religious movements. (365) Cultural relativism   The viewing of people's behavior from the perspective of their own culture. (73) Cultural transmission   A school of criminology that argues that criminal behavior is learned through social interactions. (183) Cultural universal   A common practice or belief found in every culture. (59, 351) Culture   The totality of learned, socially transmitted customs, knowledge, material objects, and behavior. (58) Culture-bound syndrome   A disease or illness that cannot be understood apart from its specific social context. (438) Culture lag   A period of maladjustment when the nonmaterial culture is still struggling to adapt to new material conditions. (62, 532) Culture shock   The feeling of surprise and disorientation that people experience when they witness cultural practices that are different from their own. (72) Curanderismo   Latino folk medicine, a form of holistic health care and healing. (447) Death rate   The number of deaths per 1,000 population in a given year. Also known as the crude death rate. (489) Defended neighborhood   A neighborhood that residents identify through defined community borders and a perception that adjacent areas are geographically separate and socially different. (472) Degradation ceremony   An aspect of the socialization process within some total institutions, in which people are subjected to humiliating rituals. (91) Deindustrialization   The systematic, widespread withdrawal of investment in basic aspects of productivity such as factories and plants. (426) Demographic transition   A term used to describe the change from high birthrates and death rates to low birthrates and death rates. (490) Demography   The scientific study of population. (485) Denomination   A large, organized religion that is not officially linked with the state or government. (363) Dependency theory   An approach that contends that industrialized nations continue to exploit developing countries for their own gain. (230) Dependent variable   The variable in a causal relationship that is subject to the influence of another variable. (32) Deviance   Behavior that violates the standards of conduct or expectations of a group or society. (176) Differential association   A theory of deviance proposed by Edwin Sutherland that holds that violation of rules results from exposure to attitudes favorable to criminal acts. (183) Diffusion   The process by which a cultural item spreads from group to group or society to society. (60) Disaster   A sudden or disruptive event or set of events that overtaxes a community's resources, so that outside aid is necessary. (510) Discovery   The process of making known or sharing the existence of an aspect of reality. (60) Discrimination   The denial of opportunities and equal rights to individuals and groups because of prejudice or other arbitrary reasons. (257) Disengagement theory   A functionalist theory of aging introduced by Cumming and Henry that contends that society and the aging individual mutually sever many of their relationships. (305) Domestic partnership   Two unrelated adults who share a mutually caring relationship, reside together, and agree to be jointly responsible for their dependents, basic living expenses, and other common necessities. (342) Dominant ideology   A set of cultural beliefs and practices that help to maintain powerful social, economic, and political interests. (69, 154, 207) Downsizing   Reductions taken in a company's workforce as part of deindustrialization. (427) Dramaturgical approach   A view of social interaction, popularized by Erving Goffman, in which people are seen as theatrical performers. (17, 86) Dyad   A two-member group. (131) Dysfunction   An element or a process of society that may disrupt a social system or lead to a decrease in stability. (14) Ecclesia   A religious organization that claims to include most or all members of a society, and is recognized as the national or official religion. (362) E-commerce   Numerous ways in which people with access to the Internet do business from their computers. (430) Economic system   The social institution through which goods and services are produced, distributed, and consumed. (415) Education   A formal process of learning in which some people consciously teach while others adopt the social role of learner. (375) Egalitarian family   An authority pattern in which spouses are regarded as equals. (326) Elite model   A view of society as being ruled by a small group of individuals who share a common set of political and economic interests. (405) Emergent-norm perspective   A theory of collective behavior proposed by Turner and Killian that holds that a collective definition of appropriate and inappropriate behavior emerges during episodes of collective behavior. (507) Endogamy   The restriction of mate selection to people within the same group. (330) Environmental justice   A legal strategy based on claims that racial minorities are subjected disproportionately to environmental hazards. (499) Equilibrium model   Talcott Parsons's functionalist view that society tends toward a state of stability or balance. (528) Established sect   J. Milton Yinger's term for a religious group that is the outgrowth of a sect, yet remains isolated from society. (365) Estate system   A system of stratification under which peasants were required to work land leased to them by nobles in exchange for military protection and other services. Also known as feudalism. (200). Esteem   The reputation that a particular individual has earned within an occupation. (209) Ethnic group   A group that is set apart from others primarily because of its national origin or distinctive cultural patterns. (250) Ethnocentrism   The tendency to assume that one's own culture and way of life represent the norm or are superior to all others. (73, 255) Ethnography   The study of an entire social setting through extended systematic observation. (37) Euthanasia   The act of bringing about the death of a hopelessly ill and suffering person in a relatively quick and painless way for reasons of mercy. (318) Evolutionary theory   A theory of social change that holds that society is moving in a definite direction. (527) Exogamy   The requirement that people select a mate outside certain groups. (330) Experiment   An artificially created situation that allows the researcher to manipulate variables. (38) Experimental group   The subjects in an experiment who are exposed to an independent variable introduced by a researcher. (39) Exploitation theory   A Marxist theory that views racial subordination in the United States as a manifestation of the class system inherent in capitalism. (260) Expressiveness   Concern for the maintenance of harmony and the internal emotional affairs of family. (286) Extended family   A family in which relatives-such as grandparents, aunts, or uncles-live in the same home as parents and their children. (324) Face-work   A term used by Erving Goffman to refer to the efforts people make to maintain the proper image and avoid public embarrassment. (86) Fad   A temporary pattern of behavior that involves large numbers of people and is independent of preceding trends. (511) False consciousness   A term used by Karl Marx to describe an attitude held by members of a class that does not accurately reflect their objective position. (203, 515) Familism   Pride in the extended family, expressed through the maintenance of close ties and strong obligations to kinfolk outside the immediate family. (333) Family   A set of people related by blood, marriage, or some other agreed-on relationship, or adoption, who share the primary responsibility for reproduction and caring for members of society. (324) Fashion   A pleasurable mass involvement that has a line of historical continuity. (511) Feminist view   A sociological approach that views inequity in gender as central to all behavior and organization. (15) Fertility   The level of reproduction in a society. (485) Focus group   A group of 10 to 15 people assembled by a researcher to discuss a predetermined topic, guided by a moderator. (130) Folkway   A norm governing everyday behavior whose violation raises comparatively little concern. (66) Force   The actual or threatened use of coercion to impose one's will on others. (399) Formal norm   A norm that has been written down and that specifies strict punishments for violators. (66) Formal organization   A group designed for a special purpose and structured for maximum efficiency. (132) Formal social control   Social control that is carried out by authorized agents, such as police officers, judges, school administrators, and employers. (174) Functionalist perspective   A sociological approach that emphasizes the way that parts of a society are structured to maintain its stability. (13) Gatekeeping   The process by which a relatively small number of people control what material eventually reaches the audience. (154) Gemeinschaft   A term used by Ferdinand Tönnies to describe a close-knit community, often found in rural areas, in which strong personal bonds unite members. (115) Gender role   Expectations regarding the proper behavior, attitudes, and activities of a male or female. (91, 282) Generalized other   A term used by George Herbert Mead to refer to the attitudes, viewpoints, and expectations of society as a whole that a child takes into account in his or her behavior. (85) Genocide   The deliberate, systematic killing of an entire people or nation. (262) Gentrification   The resettlement of lowincome city neighborhoods by prosperous families and business firms. (478) Gerontology   The scientific study of the sociological and psychological aspects of aging and the problems of the aged. (305) Gesellschaft   A term used by Ferdinand Tönnies to describe a community, often urban, that is large and impersonal, with little commitment to the group or consensus on values. (116) Glass ceiling   An invisible barrier that blocks the promotion of a qualified individual in a work environment because of the individual's gender, race, or ethnicity. (257, 293) Globalization   The worldwide integration of government policies, cultures, social movements, and financial markets through trade and the exchange of ideas. (60, 230) Goal displacement   Overzealous conformity to official regulations of a bureaucracy. (134) Goal multiplication   The process through which an organization expands its purpose. (139) Goal succession   The process through which an organization identifies an entirely new objective because its traditional goals have been realized or denied. (139) Group   Any number of people with similar norms, values, and expectations who interact with one another on a regular basis. (109, 127) Growth rate   The difference between births and deaths, plus the difference between immigrants and emigrants, per 1,000 population. (489) Hawthorne effect   The unintended influence that observers of experiments can have on their subjects. (39) Health   As defined by the World Health Organization, a state of complete physical, mental, and social wellbeing, and not merely the absence of disease and infirmity. (438) Health maintenance organization (HMO)   An organization that provides comprehensive medical services for a preestablished fee. (456) Hidden curriculum   Standards of behavior that are deemed proper by society and are taught subtly in schools. (379) Holistic medicine   Therapies in which the health care practitioner considers the person's physical, mental, emotional, and spiritual characteristics. (450) Homophobia   Fear of and prejudice against homosexuality. (283) Horizontal mobility   The movement of an individual from one social position to another of the same rank. (216) Horticultural society   A preindustrial society in which people plant seeds and crops rather than merely subsist on available foods. (116) Hospice care   Treatment of the terminally ill in their own homes, or in special hospital units or other facilities, with the goal of helping them to die easily, without pain. (313) Human ecology   An area of study concerned with the interrelationships between people and their environment. (464, 498) Human relations approach   An approach to the study of formal organizations that emphasizes the role of people, communication, and participation within a bureaucracy and tends to focus on the informal structure of the organization. (136) Human rights   Universal moral rights possessed by all people because they are human. (243) Hunting-and-gathering society   A preindustrial society in which people rely on whatever foods and fibers are readily available in order to survive. (116) Hypothesis   A speculative statement about the relationship between two or more variables. (32) Ideal type   A construct or model for evaluating specific cases. (10, 133) Impression management   A term used by Erving Goffman to refer to the altering of the presentation of the self in order to create distinctive appearances and satisfy particular audiences. (86) Incest taboo   The prohibition of sexual relationships between certain culturally specified relatives. (330) Incidence   The number of new cases of a specific disorder occurring within a given population during a stated period. (444) Income   Salaries and wages. (199) Independent variable   The variable in a causal relationship that causes or influences a change in a second variable. (32) Industrial city   A relatively large city characterized by open competition, an open class system, and elaborate specialization in the manufacturing of goods. (463) Industrial society   A society that depends on mechanization to produce its goods and services. (118, 415) Infant mortality rate   The number of deaths of infants under one year of age per 1,000 live births in a given year. (489) Influence   The exercise of power through a process of persuasion. (399) Informal economy   Transfers of money, goods, or services that are not reported to the government. (237, 418) Informal norm   A norm that is generally understood but not precisely recorded. (66) Informal social control   Social control that is carried out casually by ordinary people through such means as laughter, smiles, and ridicule. (174) In-group   Any group or category to which people feel they belong. (129) Innovation   The process of introducing a new idea or object into a culture through discovery or invention. (60) Institutional discrimination   The denial of opportunities and equal rights to individuals and groups that results from the normal operations of a society. (258, 289) Instrumentality   An emphasis on tasks, a focus on more distant goals, and a concern for the external relationship between one's family and other social institutions. (286) Interactionist perspective   A sociological approach that generalizes about everyday forms of social interaction in order to understand society as a whole. (16) Intergenerational mobility   Changes in the social position of children relative to their parents. (217) Interview   A face-to-face or telephone questioning of a respondent to obtain desired information. (37) Intragenerational mobility   Changes in a person's social position within his or her adult life. (217) Invention   The combination of existing cultural items into a form that did not previously exist. (60) Iron law of oligarchy   A principle of organizational life developed by Robert Michels, under which even democratic organizations will develop into bureaucracies ruled by a few individuals. (135) Issei   Japanese immigrants to the United States. (269) Kinship   The state of being related to others. (325) Labeling theory   An approach to deviance that attempts to explain why certain people are viewed as deviants while others engaged in the same behavior are not. (185) Labor union   Organized workers who share either the same skill or the same employer. (141) Laissez-faire   A form of capitalism under which people compete freely, with minimal government intervention in the economy. (416) Language   An abstract system of word meanings and symbols for all aspects of culture; includes gestures and other nonverbal communication. (63) Latent function   Unconscious or unintended function; hidden purpose. (14) Law   Governmental social control. (66, 175) Legal-rational authority   Max Weber's term for power made legitimate by law. (399) Liberation theology   Use of a church, primarily Roman Catholicism, in a political effort to eliminate poverty, discrimination, and other forms of injustice from a secular society. (358) Life chances   Max Weber's term for the opportunities people have to provide themselves with material goods, positive living conditions, and favorable life experiences. (215) Life expectancy   The median number of years a person can be expected to live under current mortality conditions. (489) Looking-glass self   A concept used by Charles Horton Cooley that emphasizes the self as the product of our social interactions with others. (84) Luddites   Rebellious craft workers in nineteenth-century England who destroyed new factory machinery as part of their resistance to the industrial revolution. (532) Machismo   A sense of virility, personal worth, and pride in one's maleness. (333) Macrosociology   Sociological investigation that concentrates on large-scale phenomena or entire civilizations. (13) Manifest function   Open, stated, and conscious function. (14) Mass media   Print and electronic instruments of communication that carry messages to often widespread audiences. (149) Master status   A status that dominates others and thereby determines a person's general position in society. (106) Material culture   The physical or technological aspects of our daily lives. (62) Matriarchy   A society in which women dominate in family decision making. (326) Matrilineal descent   A kinship system in which only the relatives of the mother are significant. (326) McDonaldization   The process by which the principles of the fast-food restaurant industry have come to dominate certain sectors of society, both in the United States and throughout the world. (127) Mean   A number calculated by adding a series of values and then dividing by the number of values. (50) Mechanical solidarity   A collective consciousness that emphasizes group solidarity, characteristic of societies with minimal division of labor. (115) Median   The midpoint or number that divides a series of values into two groups of equal numbers of values. (50) Megalopolis   A densely populated area containing two or more cities and their surrounding suburbs. (464) Mental illness   A disorder of the brain that disrupts a person's thinking, feeling, and ability to interact with others. (452) Microsociology   Sociological investigation that stresses study of small groups and often uses laboratory experimental studies. (13) Midlife crisis   A stressful period of selfevaluation that begins at about age 40. (309) Migration   Relatively permanent movement of people with the purpose of changing their place of residence. (494) Minority group   A subordinate group whose members have significantly less control or power over their own lives than the members of a dominant or majority group have over theirs. (250) Mode   The single most common value in a series of scores. (50) Model or ideal minority   A minority group that despite past prejudice and discrimination, succeeds economically, socially, and educationally without resorting to confrontations with Whites. (268) Modernization   The far-reaching process by which peripheral nations move from traditional or less developed institutions to those characteristic of more developed societies. (232) Modernization theory   A functionalist approach that proposes that modernization and development will gradually improve the lives of people in developing nations. (233) Monogamy   A form of marriage in which one woman and one man are married only to each other. (325) Monopoly   Control of a market by a single business firm. (416) Morbidity rate   The incidence of disease in a given population. (444) Mores   Norms deemed highly necessary to the welfare of a society. (66) Mortality rate   The incidence of death in a given population. (444) Multilinear evolutionary theory   A theory of social change that holds that change can occur in several ways, and does not inevitably lead in the same direction. (528) Multinational corporation   A commercial organization that is headquartered in one country but does business throughout the world. (230) Multiple-nuclei theory   A theory of urban growth developed by Harris and Ullman that views growth as emerging from many centers of development, each of which may reflect a particular urban need or activity. (467) Narcotizing dysfunction   The phenomenon in which the media provide such massive amounts of information that the audience becomes numb and generally fails to act on the information, regardless of how compelling the issue. (153) Natural science   The study of the physical features of nature and the ways in which they interact and change. (6) Negotiated order   A social structure that derives its existence from the social interactions through which people define and redefine its character. (105) Negotiation   The attempt to reach agreement with others concerning some objective. (104) Neocolonialism   Continuing dependence of former colonies on foreign countries. (229) New religious movement (NRM) or cult   A small, secretive religious group that represents either a new religion or a major innovation of an existing faith. (365) New social movement   An organized collective activity that addresses values and social identities, as well as improvements in the quality of life. (517) New urban sociology   An approach to urbanization that considers the interplay of local, national, and worldwide forces and their effect on local space, with special emphasis on the impact of global economic activity. (467) Nisei   Japanese children born in the United States to the Issei. (269) Nonmaterial culture   Ways of using material objects, as well as customs, beliefs, philosophies, governments, and patterns of communication. (62) Nonperiodic assembly   A nonrecurring gathering of people that often results from word-of-mouth information. (509) Nonverbal communication   The sending of messages through the use of posture, facial expressions, and gestures. (16) Norm   An established standard of behavior maintained by a society. (66)