The international financial system performs the same roles and functions that
domestic
money and capital markets do around the globe. It attracts savings and allocates
capital for investment purposes toward the most promising projects, stimulating
the
international economy to grow. - One of the most significant sources of information on world trade and the
flow of savings (capital) between nations is provided by each countrys
balance-of-payments (BOP) accounts, which summarize economic and financial
transactions between residents of a nation and the rest of the world. The
principal components of a nations balance of payments are the current
account (which focuses primarily upon flows of merchandise and services
between nations), the capital account (which traces long- and short-term
capital flows between nations), and official reserve transactions (which
are used by governments and central banks to aid in the settlement of balance-of-payments
deficits).
- One of the most significant risks in the international financial system
is currency or foreign exchange risk. Crossing national and regional
borders with capital or merchandise usually is accompanied by transactions
involving two or more different currencies whose relative values can change
quickly, threatening losses on trade and in the value of capital investments.
- Reducing currency risk has been a continuing goal of nations, individuals,
and businesses for centuries. Nations have resorted in the past to tying their
currencies to assets (such as gold) recognized as having universal appeal
and value. However, restrictions on the availability of gold and transaction
costs as well as lack of flexibility in a nations money and credit policy
eventually led to a much more flexible currency standard, referred to today
as the managed floating currency standard. Each nation chooses its
own currency standard, taking into account the welfare of other nations.
- The exchange rate between one currency and another is determined by the
foreign exchange (FOREX) market through the interplay of the demand and supply
for each nations currency. Currencies are traded over the counter in
a relatively informal marketplace and prices are quoted as double barrel
quotationsthe price of one foreign currency expressed in terms of another.
- Foreign currency markets today are three-tiered, divided into spot,
forward, and futures and options markets. While spot transactions
involve immediate currency exchanges, forward, futures, and options markets
are designed to hedge against currency.
- The supply and demand forces that shape foreign currency prices are influenced
by a few powerful factors, including a nations balance-of-payments position,
speculation over future currency values, domestic economic conditions, and
central bank policy.
- The forward exchange market is designed to protect against losses
due to currency price fluctuations. The functions of forward currency contracts
include (a) commercial covering designed primarily to affect export/import
values; (b) hedging an investment position against loss in market values;
(c) speculation about future currency values; and (d) covered interest arbitrage
to help protect the yield on an investment instrument (such as a government
bond).
- The principle of interest rate parity in international currency
markets rests on the fact that the net return to the investor from any foreign
investment is equal to the interest earned on the investment plus or minus
the forward premium or discount on the price of any foreign currency involved
in the transaction. The parity principle argues that the interest-rate differential
between two nations is closely related to the forward discount or premium
on their currencies.
- Foreign currency futures contracts call for the future delivery
of a specific currency at a price agreed upon today and are designed to transfer
currency risk to another investor willing to bear that risk. Importers of
goods and services typically use a buying hedge in currency futures
while a selling hedge is often employed by investors who purchase foreign
securities and want to protect their earnings from a drop in currency values.
- Newer and more innovative methods for dealing with currency risk include
currency swaps, where two parties exchange payments in different currencies;
the use of local loans to avoid currency trading; dual currency
bonds, with principal and interest payments made in at least two different
currencies; the bartering of goods or property; and the risk-adjusted pricing
of goods and services in order to take into account foreign exchange risk.
- Government intervention in foreign exchange markets has become less common
today. However, most governments will intervene to change currency values
when emergency shocks occur (such as terrorist attacks or a sudden plunge
in the values of stock or bonds) that could damage a nations economic
welfare.
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