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Absorbent mind  Montessori's term for a child's ability to absorb experiences from the environment (0 to 6 years) (Ch. 7).
Accommodation  Piaget's term to describe the manner by which cognitive structures change (Ch. 2).
Accumulation of errors  As cells die, they must synthesize new proteins to make new cells. As this is done, occasionally an error occurs. Over time, these errors mount up and may finally grow serious enough to cause organ failure (Ch. 17).
Accumulation of metabolic waste  Waste products resulting from metabolism build-up in various parts of the body, contributing greatly to the decreasing competence of those parts (Ch. 17).
Activity theory  Human beings flourish through interaction with other people. They are unhappy when, as they reach the older years, their contacts with others shrink as a result of death, illness, and societal limitations. Those who are able to keep up the social activity of their middle years are considered the most successful (Ch. 18).
Adaptation  One of the two functional invariants in Piaget's theory (Ch. 2).
Adaptative strategy choice model  When strategies are successful, their usage increases (Ch. 9).
Adolescent egocentrism  The reversion to the self-centered thinking patterns of childhood that sometimes occurs in the teen years (Ch. 11).
Afterbirth  Stage three of the birth process, during which the placenta and other membranes are discharged (Ch. 4).
Ageism  The prejudice that the elderly are inferior to those who are younger (Ch. 17).
Aging by program  The theory that all animals seem to die when their "program" dictates (Ch. 17).
AIDS (acquired immune deficiency syndrome)  A condition caused by a virus that invades the body's immune system, making it vulnerable to infections and life-threatening illnesses (Chs. 4 and 12).
Alarm reaction  Selye's term for a "call to arms" of the body's defensive forces (Ch. 16).
Alleles  Different forms of a gene (Ch. 3).
Amniocentesis  A process that entails inserting a needle through the mother's abdomen, piercing the amniotic sac and withdrawing a sample of the amniotic fluid (Ch. 4).
Amniotic sac  Fluid-filled cavity in which embryo and fetus develop (Ch. 4).
Anal stage  Freud's belief that the anus is the main source of pleasure during age 1½ to 3 years (Ch. 2).
Androgyny  Functional level of gender-role identifications that incorporate male and female qualities (Ch. 14).
Animism  Children consider objects as alive and conscious that adults consider inert (Ch. 7).
Anorexia nervosa  A syndrome of self-starvation that mainly affects adolescent and young adult females (Ch. 11).
Anoxia  A lack of oxygen that can cause brain damage or death if it occurs during the birth process (Ch. 4).
Anticipatory images  Piaget's term for images (including movements and transformation) that enable the child to anticipate change (Ch. 7).
Antigens  The substances in the blood that produce antibodies, which kill them (Ch. 17).
Apgar  A scale to evaluate a newborn's basic life signs administered 1 minute after birth and repeated at 3-, 5-, and 10-minute intervals; it uses five life signs—heart rate, respiratory effort, muscle tone, reflex irritability, and skin color (Ch. 5).
Apnea  Brief periods when breathing is suspended (Ch. 5).
Artificialism  Children attribute human life to inanimate objects (Ch. 7).
Assimilation  Piaget's term to describe the manner in which we incorporate data into our cognitive structures (Ch. 2).
Attachment  Behavior intended to keep a child (or an adult) in close proximity to a significant other (Ch. 6).
Authoritarian parents  Baumrind's term for parents who are demanding and want instant obedience as the most desirable child trait (Chs. 8 and 12).
Authoritative parenting  Parents who respond to their children's needs and wishes. Believing in parental control, they attempt to explain the reasons for it to their children (Chs. 8 and 12).
Autoimmunity  The process by which the immune system in the body rejects the body's own tissue (Ch. 17).
Autonomy  Infants realize that they have a share in controlling their interactions with others (Ch. 6).
Autosexuality  The love of oneself; the stage at which the child becomes aware of himself or herself as a source of sexual pleasure and consciously experiments with masturbation (Ch. 12).
Babbling  Infant produces sounds approximating speech between 5 and 6 months (Ch. 5).
Basal metabolism rate (BMR)  The minimum amount of energy an individual tends to use when in a resting state (Ch. 15).
Battered child syndrome  Classic physical abuse (Ch. 10).
Bend and bond response  The female response to stress, it refers to making compromises and relationships (Ch. 14).
Bioecological model  The belief that the interactions between person and environment are best explained by a system analysis (Ch. 1).
Biological death  Death occurs when it is no longer possible to discern an electrical charge in the tissues of the heart and lungs (Ch. 19).
Biopsychosocial interactions  A term for the idea that development proceeds by the interaction of biological, psychological, and social forces (Ch. 1).
Biopsychosocial theory of homosexuality  The theory that homosexuality is caused by some factor in a person's DNA that affects temperament, which in turn interacts with psychological and social factors to determine sexual orientation (Ch. 12).
Blastocyst  When the fertilized egg reaches the uterus (about seven days), it's known as a blastocyst (Chs. 3 and 4).
Brain death  Death of the brain occurs when it fails to receive a sufficient supply of oxygen for a short period of time (usually 8 to 10 minutes) (Ch. 19).
Brazelton Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale  A device to assess an infant's behavioral repertoire (Ch. 5).
Breech birth  A birth in which the baby is born feet first, buttocks first, or in a crosswise position (transverse presentation) (Ch. 4).
Bulimia nervosa  This disorder is characterized by "episodic binge-eating accompanied by an awareness that the eating pattern is abnormal, fear of not being able to stop eating voluntarily, and depressed mood and self-deprecating thoughts following the eating binges" (Ch. 11).
Cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR)  A technique for reviving an individual's lungs and heart that have ceased to function (Ch. 19).
Cellular differentiation  Embryonic cells are destined for specific functions (Ch. 4).
Centration  A feature of preoperational thought—the centering of attention on one aspect of an object and the neglecting of any other features (Ch. 7).
Cesarean section  A surgery performed to deliver the baby through the abdomen if for some reason the child cannot come through the birth canal (Ch. 4).
Child abuse  Commonly includes physical abuse, sexual abuse, emotional abuse, physical neglect, emotional neglect, and educational neglect (Ch. 10).
Chlamydia  Bacterial infection that may cause infertility; now the most common STI, with about 5 to 7 million new cases each year. There often are no symptoms; it is diagnosed only when complications develop (Ch. 12).
Cholesterol  A substance in the blood that adheres to the walls of the blood vessels, restricting the flow of blood and causing strokes and heart attacks (Ch. 13).
Chorionic villi sampling (CVS)  A procedure in which a catheter (small tube) is inserted through the vagina to the villi and a small section is suctioned into the tube (Ch. 4).
Chromosome failure  Biological changes such as enlarged breasts in males and abnormal body hair in females (Ch. 14).
Chronosystem  The effect of time on development (Ch. 1).
Classification  The process by which concrete operational children can group objects with some similarities within a larger category (Chs. 7 and 9).
Climacteric  A relatively abrupt change in the body, brought about by changes in hormonal balances (Ch. 15).
Climacterium  The loss of reproductive ability (Ch. 15).
Clinical death  The individual is dead when his or her respiration and heartbeat have stopped (Ch. 19).
Closed adoption  Natural parents know nothing about the adopting parents (Ch. 3).
Cognitive structures  Piaget's term to describe the basic tools of cognitive development (Ch. 2).
Collagen  The major connective tissue in the body; it provides the elasticity in our skin and blood vessels (Ch. 17).
Commitment  The third phase in Perry's theory, in which the individual realizes that certainty is impossible but that commitment to a certain position is necessary, even without certainty. For Fowler, the third step in the birth of a religion, in which people devote their lives to objectified ideas. They are willing under any circumstances to help those who have done the same (Chs. 13, 14, and 19).
Competence  Children's sense of self-esteem related to athletic competence, likability by peers, physical appearance, and behavioral conduct (Ch. 10).
Concrete operational period  Piaget's third stage of cognitive development, during which children begin to employ logical thought processes with concrete material (Ch. 9).
Conservation  Children conserve the essence of something even though surface features change (Chs. 7 and 9).
Constructed knowledge  Belenky's fifth phase of women's thinking; characterized by an integration of the subjective and procedural ways of knowing (types 3 and 4) (Ch. 13).
Continuity  The lasting quality of experiences; development proceeds steadily and sequentially (Ch. 1).
Controlled scribbling  Drawing in which children carefully watch what they are doing, whereas before they looked away (Ch. 7).
Convergent thinking  Thinking used to find one correct answer (Ch. 11).
Cooing  Early language sounds that resemble vowels (Ch. 5).
Coordinate secondary schemes  Infants combine secondary schemes to obtain a goal (Ch. 5).
Crawling  Locomotion in which the infant's abdomen touches the floor and the weight of the head and shoulders rests on the elbows (Ch. 5).
Creeping  Movement is on hands and knees and the trunk does not touch the ground; creeping appears from 9 months in most youngsters (Ch. 5).
Cross-linkage theory  A theory of aging stating that the proteins that make up a large part of cells are composed of peptides. When cross-links are formed between peptides (a natural process of the body), the proteins are altered, often for the worse (Ch. 17).
Crossover  Older men become more like women, and older women become more like men (Ch. 18).
Cross-sectional studies  This method compares groups of individuals of various ages at the same time in order to investigate the effects of aging (Ch. 1).
Crowds  Groups known for certain values, attitudes, or activities (Ch. 12).
Crystallized intelligence  Involves perceiving relationships, educing correlates, reasoning, abstracting, concept of attainment, and problem solving, as measured primarily in unspeeded tasks involving various kinds of content (semantic, figural, symbolic) (Ch. 15).
Culture  Those values, beliefs, and behaviors characteristic of a large group of people—for example, those of Hispanic origin (Ch. 1).
Cystic fibrosis (CF)  Chromosomal disorder producing a malfunction of the exocrine glands (Ch. 3).
Cytogenetics  The study of chromosomes (Ch. 3).
Cytomegalovirus (CMV)  A virus that can cause damage ranging from mental retardation, blindness, deafness, and even death. One of the major difficulties in combatting this disease is that it remains unrecognized in pregnant women (Ch. 4).
Decentering  The process by which concrete operational children can concentrate on more than one aspect of a situation (Ch. 9).
Decoding  The technique by which we recognize words (Ch. 9).
Deferred imitation  Imitative behavior that continues after the disappearance of the model to be imitated (Ch. 7).
DES (diethylstilbestrol)  In the late 1940s and 1950s, DES (a synthetic hormone) was administered to pregnant women supposedly to prevent miscarriage. It was later found that the daughters of the women who had received this treatment were more susceptible to vaginal and cervical cancer (Ch. 4).
Descriptive studies  Information is gathered on subjects without manipulating them in any way (Ch. 1).
Despair  The counterpart to integrity in the last stage of Erikson's theory. When people look back over their lives and feel that they have made many wrong decisions or, more commonly, that they have not made any decisions at all (Ch. 18).
Developing readers  Children who are beginning to understand the relationship between sound and symbol and pay close attention to the print in their efforts at decoding (Ch. 9).
Developmental contextualism  Focuses not only on the interactions between heredity and environment but also on the changes resulting from the interactions (Ch. 2).
Developmental risk  Children who may be susceptible to problems because of some physical or psychological difficulty ("at-risk" children) (Ch. 4).
Difficult children  Term to describe restless, irritable children; associated with Chess and Thomas (Ch. 6).
Dilation  Stage one of the birth process, during which the cervix dilates to about 4 inches in diameter (Ch. 4).
Discontinuity  Behaviors that are apparently unrelated to earlier aspects of development (Ch. 1).
Disengagement theory  According to this position, the most mature adults are likely to gradually disengage themselves from their fellow human beings in preparation for death. They become less interested in their interactions with others and more concerned with internal concerns (Ch. 18).
Distantiation  The readiness of all of us to distance ourselves from others when we feel threatened by their behavior (Ch. 14).
Divergent thinking  Thinking used when a problem to be solved has many possible answers (Ch. 11).
Dizygotic twins  Nonidentical twins (Ch. 3).
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)  The chemical structure of the gene that accounts for our inherited characteristics (Ch. 3).
Dominant  The tendency of a gene to be expressed in a trait (Ch. 3).
Down syndrome  Genetic abnormality caused by a deviation on the 21st pair of chromosomes (Ch. 3).
Drawing  Piaget's use of the term to indicate a growing symbolic ability (Ch. 7).
Dual-career family  A family in which both the mother and the father are working, usually full-time (Ch. 13).
Dualism  Perry's initial phase of ethical development, in which "things are either absolutely right or absolutely wrong" (Ch. 13).
Dual-process model  A model of intelligence that says there may be a decline in the mechanics of intelligence, such as classification skills and logical reasoning, but that the pragmatics are likely to increase (Ch. 15).
DUPE  Problem-solving model (Determine a problem exists, Understand its nature, Plan for its solution, and Evaluate the solution) (Ch. 9).
Early onset trajectory  A history of criminal behavior that begins in pre- and early adolescence (Ch. 12).
Easy children  Term used to describe calm, relaxed children; associated with Chess and Thomas (Ch. 6).
Ectoderm  The outer layer of the embryo that will give rise to nervous system, among other developmental features (Ch. 4).
Ectopic pregnancy  A pregnancy in which the fertilized egg attempts to develop in one of the fallopian tubes; this is sometimes referred to as a tubal pregnancy (Ch. 4).
Ego  One of the three structures of the psyche, according to Freud; mediates between the id and the superego (Ch. 2).
Egocentrism  Child focuses on self in early phases of cognitive development; term associated with Piaget (Chs. 5 and 7).
Electroencephalogram (EEG)  A graphic record of the electrical activity of the brain (Ch. 19).
Embryonic period  Third through the eighth week following fertilization (Ch. 4).
Emergent readers  Children who can identify letters and recognize some common words; they know what books "do" and they attempt to read by using semantic and syntactic cues (Ch. 9).
Emotional divorce  Sometimes a couple learns to "withstand" each other, rather than live with each other. The only activities and interests that they shared were ones that revolved around the children. When the children leave, they are forced to recognize how far apart they have drifted; in effect, they are emotionally divorced (Ch. 16).
Empty nest syndrome  The feelings parents may have as a result of their last child leaving home (Ch. 16).
Endoderm  The inner layer of the embryo that will give rise to the lungs, liver, and pancreas, among other developmental features (Ch. 4).
Endometriosis  A condition in which tissue normally found in the uterus grows in other areas, such as the fallopian tubes (Ch. 3).
Entrainment  The rhythm that is established between a parent's and an infant's behavior (Ch. 6).
Equilibration  Piaget's term to describe the balance between assimilation and accommodation (Ch. 2).
Escape  Perry's term for refusing responsibility for making any commitments. Because everyone's opinion is "equally right," the person believes that no commitments need be made and, so, escapes from the dilemma (Ch. 13).
Ethology  The study of behavior in natural settings (Ch. 6).
Euthanasia  Means a "good death." There are two types: passive euthanasia, in which the patient's legal instructions are carried out by the medical team, and active euthanasia, in which the patient's life is ended in ways that are now illegal (Ch. 19).
Evolutionary developmental psychology  An explanation of development that rests upon the assumption that our physiological and psychological systems resulted from evolution by selection (Ch. 2).
Existential love  The capacity to cherish the present moment, perhaps first learned when we confront the certainty of our own personal death (Ch. 18).
Exosystem  Environment in which the developing person is not actually present but which nevertheless affects development (Ch. 1).
Expressive language  Language that children use to express their own ideas and needs (Ch. 7).
Expulsion  Stage two of the birth process, during which the baby passes through the birth canal (Ch. 4).
Failure to thrive (FTT)  A condition in which the weight and height of infants consistently remain far below normal (the bottom 3 percent of height and weight measures) (Ch. 5).
Fallopian tubes  Passageway for the egg once it is discharged from the ovary's surface (Ch. 3).
Fast mapping  Techniques to help children detect word meanings (Ch. 7).
Feminist movement  The movement organized by women in the 1960s that strives to defend their rights as equal to men (Ch. 14).
Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)  Refers to babies when their mothers drink alcohol during pregnancy; they manifest four clusters of symptoms: psychological functioning, growth factors, physical features, and structural effects (Ch. 4).
Fetal period  The period extending from the beginning of the third month to birth (Ch. 4).
Fetoscopy  A procedure in which a tiny instrument called a fetoscope is inserted into the amniotic cavity, making it possible to see the fetus (Ch. 4).
Five factor model (FFM) of personality  Costa and McCrae's model of the major traits that make up the human psyche (Ch. 16).
Fluid intelligence  Involves perceiving relationships, educing correlates, maintaining span of immediate awareness in reasoning, abstracting, concept formation, and problem solving, as measured in unspeeded as well as speeded tasks involving figural, symbolic, or semantic content (Ch. 15).
Forceps delivery  A procedure in which the physician, for safety, will withdraw the baby with forceps during the first phase of birth (Ch. 4).
Fragile X syndrome  A sex-linked inheritance disorder in which the bottom half of the X chromosome looks as if it is ready to fall off; causes mental retardation in 80 percent of the cases (Ch. 3).
Friends  Nonfamilial relationships that offer feelings of warmth and support (Ch. 10).
Functional invariants  In Piaget's theory, functional invariants are the psychological mechanisms of adaptation and organization (Ch. 2).
Gender revolution  Levinson's term; the meanings of gender are changing and becoming more similar (Ch. 16).
Gender splitting  Levinson's term; all societies support the idea that there should be a clear difference between what is considered appropriate for males and for females; gender splitting appears to be universal (Ch. 16).
Gene theory  The theory that aging is due to certain harmful genes (Ch. 17).
General adaptation syndrome  A set of reactions that occur in animals in response to all toxic substances, regardless of their source. Involves three stages: alarm, resistance, and exhaustion (Ch. 16).
Generative love  Most characteristic of parenthood, a time during which sacrifices are gladly made for the sake of the children (Ch. 18).
Generativity  Erikson's term for the ability to be useful to ourselves and to society (Ch. 16).
Genital herpes  An incurable sexually transmitted infection, with about 500,000 new cases every year (Ch. 12).
Genital stage  Freud's belief in a resurgence of a strong sex drive from 12 years and beyond (Ch. 2).
Genotype  An individual's genetic composition (Ch. 3).
German measles (rubella)  A typically mild childhood disease caused by a virus; pregnant women who contract this disease may give birth to a baby with a defect: congenital heart disorder, cataracts, deafness, mental retardation. The risk is especially high if the disease appears early in the pregnancy (Ch. 4).
Germinal period  The first two weeks following fertilization (Ch. 4).
Gonorrhea  Well-known venereal infection accounting for between 1.5 and 2 million cases per year (Ch. 12).
Group marriage  A marriage that includes two or more of both husbands and wives, who all exercise common privileges and responsibilities (Ch. 14).
Habituation  A process in which stimuli that are presented frequently cause a decrease in an infant's attention (Ch. 5).
Handedness  Children's preference for using one hand over the other (Ch. 7).
Hazing  The practice of submitting new members of a group to stressful experiences such as paddling (Ch. 13).
Head Start  Early intervention program intended to provide educational and developmental services to disadvantaged children (Ch. 7).
Hemophilia  A genetic condition causing incorrect blood clotting; called the "bleeder's disease" (Ch. 3).
Hepatitis B  A viral infection transmitted through sex or shared needles (Ch. 12).
Herpes simplex  An infection that usually occurs during birth; a child can develop the symptoms during the first week following the birth. The eyes and nervous system are most susceptible to this disease (Ch. 4).
Heterosexuality  Love of members of the opposite sex (Ch. 12).
Heterozygous  Different alleles for a trait (Ch. 3).
Holophrases  Children's first words that usually carry multiple meanings (Ch. 5).
Holophrastic speech  The use of one word to communicate many meanings and ideas (Ch. 5).
Homeless  Those who live in shelters, on the street, or in parks (Ch. 8).
Homeostatic imbalance  The theory that aging is due to a failure in the systems that regulate the proper interaction of the organs (Ch. 17).
Homosexual marriages  Though not accepted legally, the weddings of homosexuals are now accepted by some religions (Ch. 14).
Homosexuality  Love of members of one's own sex (Ch. 12).
Homozygous  Identical alleles for a trait (Ch. 3).
Hormonal balance  One of the triggering mechanisms of puberty that may be used to indicate the onset of adolescence (Ch. 11).
Hospice  A facility and/or program dedicated to assisting those who have accepted the fact that they are dying and desire a "death with dignity." Provides pain control and counseling but does not attempt to cure anyone (Ch. 19).
Human Genome Project  The attempt to identify and map the 50,000 to 100,000 genes that constitute the human genetic endowment (Ch. 3).
Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)  The virus that leads to AIDS (Ch. 12).
Id  One of the three structures of the psyche, according to Freud; the source of our instinctive desires (Ch. 2).
Identity crisis  Erikson's term for those situations, usually in adolescence, that cause us to make major decisions about our identity (Chs. 2 and 11).
Identity status  Marcia's four aspects of identity formation (Ch. 11).
Imaginary audience  Adolescents' perception that the world is constantly scrutinizing their behavior and physical appearance (Ch. 11).
Implantation  Fertilized egg attaches and secures itself to uterine wall (Chs. 3 and 4).
Impotency  The inability to engage in the sexual act (Ch. 18).
Impulsivity  A child's lack of ability to delay gratification (Ch. 10).
In vitro fertilization  Fertilization that occurs "in the dish"; an external fertilization technique (Ch. 3).
Independent readers  Children who can read ably and without assistance using all of the cueing systems (Ch. 9).
Individuating-reflective faith  The fourth developmental step of Fowler's theory of faith. Individuals in stage 4 begin to assume responsibility for their own beliefs, attitudes, commitments, and lifestyle (Ch. 19).
Individuation  Refers to our becoming more individual; we develop a separate and special personality, derived less and less from our parents and teachers and more from our own behavior (Ch. 14).
Integrity  The resolution of each of the first seven crises in Erikson's theory should lead us to achieve a sense of personal integrity. Older adults who have a sense of integrity feel their lives have been well spent. The decisions and actions they have taken seem to them to fit together (Ch. 18).
Intimacy  Erikson's stage that represents the ability to relate one's deepest hopes and fears to another person and to accept another's need for intimacy in turn (Ch. 14).
Intuitive-projective faith  The first developmental step of Fowler's theory of faith. In this stage, the individual focuses on surface qualities, as portrayed by adult models (Ch. 19).
Isolation  The readiness all of us have to isolate ourselves from others when we feel threatened by their behavior (Ch. 14).
Klinefelter syndrome  Males with the XXY chromosomal pattern (Ch. 3).
Knowledge-acquisition components  Sternberg's term for those components that help us to learn how to solve problems in the first place (Ch. 9).
Language explosion  Rapid acquisition of words beginning at 18 months (Ch. 5).
Latency stage  Freud's belief that the sex drive becomes dormant at 5 to 12 years (Ch. 2).
Late onset trajectory  A history of criminal behaved that begins in late adolescence (Ch. 12).
Lateralization  Refers to a preferred side of the brain for a particular activity (Ch. 7).
Learning  A process that results in the modification of behavior (Ch. 10).
Learning theory of homosexuality  The belief that homosexuality is the result of learned experiences from significant others (Ch. 12).
Legal death  Condition defined as "unreceptivity and unresponsivity, no movements or breathing, no reflexes, and a flat electroencephalogram (EEG) reading that remains flat for 24 hours" (Ch. 19).
Life course  Levinson's term. Life refers to all aspects of living—everything that has significance in a life; course refers to the flow or unfolding of an individual's life (Ch. 14).
Life Course Theory  Elder's explanation of how an individual's social system is integrated with development from the moment of birth (Ch. 2).
Life cycle  The life cycle is a general pattern of adult development, whereas the life course is the unique embodiment of the life cycle by an individual (Ch. 14).
Lifespan psychology  The study of human development from conception to death (Ch. 1).
Life structure  Levinson's term. The underlying pattern or design of a person's life at a given time (Ch. 14).
Longitudinal studies  The experimenter makes several observations of the same individuals at two or more times in their lives. Examples are determining the long-term effects of learning on behavior, the stability of habits and intelligence, and the factors involved in memory (Ch. 1).
Macrosystem  Bronfenbrenner's term for the blueprint of any society (Ch. 1).
Male change of life  Change in hormonal balance and sexual potency (Ch. 15).
Manipulative experiments  The experimenter attempts to keep all variables (all the factors that can affect a particular outcome) constant except one, which is carefully manipulated (Ch. 1).
Meiosis  Cell division in which the number of chromosomes is halved (Ch. 3).
Menarche  The onset of menstruation (Ch. 11).
Menopause  The cessation of menstruation (Ch. 15).
Mentoring  The act of assisting another, usually younger, person with his or her work or life tasks (Ch. 14).
Mesoderm  The middle layer of the embryo that gives rise to muscles, skeleton, excretory system (Ch. 4).
Mesosystem  The relationship among microsystems (Ch. 1).
Metacomponents  Sternberg's term for those components that help us to plan, monitor, and evaluate our problem-solving strategies (Ch. 9).
Microsystem  The home or school (Ch. 1).
Midcareer crisis  A stage that some persons go through in middle age during which they come to question their career goals, discover that their dreams for advancement may be unrealistic, and realize that their relations with fellow employees are changing (Ch. 15).
Midlife transition  Levinson's term for the phase that usually lasts for five years and generally extends from age 40 to 45 (Ch. 16).
Miscarriage  The term that describes when a pregnancy ends spontaneously before the 20th week (Ch. 4).
Mitosis  Cell division in which the number of chromosomes remains the same (Ch. 3).
Modeling  Bandura's term for observational learning (Ch. 2).
Monogamy  The standard marriage form in the United States and most other nations, in which there is one husband and one wife (Ch. 14).
Monozygotic twins  Identical twins (Ch. 3).
Moral dilemma  A modified clinical technique used by Kohlberg in which a conflict is posed for which subjects justify the morality of their choices (Ch. 9).
Motor skills  Skills (both gross and fine) resulting from physical development enabling children to perform smooth and coordinated physical acts (Ch. 7).
Multiple intelligences  Gardner's theory that attributes eight types of intelligence to humans (Ch. 9).
Mutations  Abrupt hereditary changes (Ch. 3).
Mythical-literal faith  The second developmental step of Fowler's theory of faith. Fantasy ceases to be a primary source of knowledge at this stage, and verification of facts becomes necessary (Ch. 19).
Mythification  Stories are developed that tell why members of a religion have a special place in the world. These stories are rational and enhance the person's understanding of the physical as well as the spiritual world (Ch. 19).
Naturalistic experiments  In these experiments, the researcher acts solely as an observer and does as little as possible to disturb the environment. "Nature" performs the experiment, and the researcher acts as a recorder of the results (Ch. 1).
Negative reinforcement  Refers to those stimuli whose withdrawal strengthens behavior (Ch. 2).
Neonate  An infant in the first days and weeks after birth (Ch. 5).
Neurological assessment  Identifies any neurological problem, suggests means of monitoring the problem, and offers a prognosis about the problem (Ch. 5).
New York Longitudinal Study  Long-term study by Chess and Thomas of the personality characteristics of children (Ch. 6).
No-fault divorce  The law that lets people get divorced without proving some atrocious act by one of the spouses. In legal language, this is known as an irretrievable breakdown of a marriage (Ch. 16).
Novice phase  Period of ages 17–33 that includes early adult transition, according to Levinson (Ch. 14).
Numeration  The process by which concrete operational children grasp the meaning of number, the oneness of one (Ch. 9).
Nurturing parenting style  The style of parenting in which parents use indirect methods such as discussion and modeling rather than punishment to influence their child's behavior. Rules are kept to a minimum (Ch. 12).
Objectification  Fowler's term for the first step in the birth of a religion in which a perception of reality is described (Ch. 19).
Olfactory sense  The sense of smell, which uses the olfactory nerves in the nose and tongue (Ch. 15).
One-time, one-group studies  Studies carried out only once on one group of subjects (Ch. 1).
Open adoption  Natural parent has considerable input into the adoption process (Ch. 3).
Operant conditioning  Skinner's form of conditioning in which a reinforcement follows the desired response; also known as instrumental conditioning (Ch. 2).
Oral stage  Freud's belief that the mouth is the main source of pleasure from age 0 to 1½ years (Ch. 2).
Organ reserve  Refers to that part of the total capacity of our body's organs that we do not normally need to use (Ch. 13).
Organization  One of the two functional invariants in Piaget's theory (Chs. 2 and 7).
Organogenesis  The formation of organs during the embryonic period (Ch. 4).
Overextensions  Children's tendency to apply a word too widely (Ch. 7).
Overregularities  Children's inappropriate use of language rules they have learned (Ch. 7).
Ovulation  Egg bursts from the surface of the ovary (Ch. 3).
Paradoxical-consolidation faith  The fifth developmental step of Fowler's theory of faith. In this stage, such elements of faith as symbols, rituals, and beliefs start to become understood and consolidated (Ch. 19).
Passion  Sternberg's term for a strong sexual desire for another (Ch. 14).
Peer  Refers to youngsters who are similar in age to other children, usually within 12 months of one another (Ch. 10).
Pelvic inflammatory disease (PID)  Infection that often results from chlamydia or gonorrhea and frequently causes prolonged problems, including infertility (Ch. 12).
Performance components  Sternberg's term for those components that help us to execute the instructions of the metacomponents (Ch. 9).
Permissive parents  Parents have little or no control over their children and refrain from disciplinary measures (Chs. 8 and 12).
Personal fable  Adolescents' tendency to think of themselves in heroic or mythical terms (Ch. 11).
Phallic stage  Freud's belief that the sex organs become the main source of pleasure from age 3 to 5 years (Ch. 2).
Phenotype  The observable expression of gene action (Ch. 3).
Phenylketonuria (PKU)  Chromosomal disorder resulting in a failure of the body to break down the amino acid phenylalanine (Ch. 3).
Phonology  Describes how to put sounds together to form words (Chs. 5 and 7).
Physician-assisted suicide (PAS)  Physicians give patients death-inducing drugs (Ch. 19).
Placenta  The placenta supplies the embryo with all its needs, carries off all its wastes, and protects it from danger (Ch. 4).
Play  An activity that children engage in because they enjoy it for its own sake (Ch. 8).
Poetic-conventional faith  The third developmental step of Fowler's theory of faith. Faith is still conventional and depends on a consensus of opinion of other, more authoritative persons (Ch. 19).
Polyandry  A marriage in which there is one wife but two or more husbands (Ch. 14).
Polygamy  A marriage in which there is one husband but two or more wives (Ch. 14).
Polygenic inheritance  Many genes contribute to the formation of a particular trait (Ch. 3).
Positive reinforcement  Refers to those stimuli whose presentation as a consequence of a response strengthens or increases the rate of the response (Ch. 2).
Pragmatics  Describes how we learn to take part in a conversation (Chs. 5 and 7).
Precociousness  The ability to do what others are able to do, but at a younger age (Ch. 11).
Premature  A condition that occurs less than 37 weeks after conception and is defined by low birth weight and immaturity (Ch. 4).
Prenatal learning  Possibility that the fetus learns while in the womb (Ch. 4).
Preoperational  Piaget's second stage of cognitive development, extending from about 2 to 7 years (Ch. 7).
Prepared childbirth  Combination of relaxation techniques and information about the birth process; sometimes called the Lamaze method after its founder (Ch. 4).
Prepared environment  Use of age-appropriate materials to further cognitive development (Ch. 7).
Primary circular reactions  Infants repeat some act involving their bodies; term associated with Piaget's theory (Ch. 5).
Procedural knowledge  Belenky's fourth phase of women's thinking; characterized by a distrust of both knowledge from authority and the female thinker's own inner authority, or "gut" (Ch. 13).
Prodigiousness  The ability to do qualitatively better than the rest of us are able to do; such a person is referred to as a prodigy (Ch. 11).
Prostatectomy  The removal of all or part of the male prostate gland (Ch. 18).
Protective factors  Characteristics of resilient individuals that protect them from stress (Ch. 16).
Proximal process  Reciprocal interactions between a person and the environment (Ch. 1).
Psychoanalytic theory  Freud's theory of the development of personality (Ch. 2).
Psychoanalytic theory of homosexuality  Freud's theory suggests that, if the child's first sexual feelings about the parent of the opposite sex are strongly punished, the child may identify with the same-sex parent and develop a permanent homosexual orientation (Ch. 12).
Puberty  A relatively abrupt and qualitatively different set of physical changes that normally occurs at the beginning of the teen years (Ch. 11).
Random scribbling  Drawing in which children use dots and lines with simple arm movements (Ch. 7).
Realism  Children learn to distinguish and accept the real world (Ch. 7).
Received knowledge  Belenky's second phase of women's thinking; characterized by being awed by the authorities but far less affiliated with them (Ch. 13).
Receptive language  Language that children use to show an understanding of words without necessarily producing them (Ch. 7).
Recessive  A gene whose trait is not expressed unless paired with another recessive gene—for example, both parents contribute genes for blue eyes (Ch. 3).
Reciprocal interactions  Similar to transactional model; recognizes the child's active role in its development; I do something to the child, and the child changes; as a result of the changes in the child, I change (Chs. 1 and 6).
Reflex  When a stimulus repeatedly elicits the same response (Ch. 5).
Rehearsal  Repeating information to aid memory (Ch. 7).
Reinforcement  Usually refers to an increase in the frequency of a response when certain pleasant consequences immediately follow it (Ch. 2).
Relativism  The second phase in Perry's theory. An attitude or a philosophy that says anything can be right or wrong, depending on the situation; all views are equally right (Ch. 13).
Representation  Child's growing ability to engage in abstract thinking (Ch. 7).
Reproductive images  Mental images that are faithful to the original object or event being represented; Piaget's term for images that are restricted to those sights previously perceived (Ch. 7).
Repudiation  Striving toward a state of identity means committing to one lifestyle and repudiating (giving up) all the other possibilities, at least for the present (Ch. 11).
Resilience  The ability to rebound from stressful experiences (Ch. 16).
Resilient children  Children who sustain some type of physiological or psychological trauma yet remain on a normal developmental path (Ch. 10).
Respiratory distress syndrome (RDS)  A problem common with premature babies that is caused by the lack of a substance called surfactant, which keeps the air sacs in the lungs open (Ch. 5).
Reticular activation system  Allows the mind to pay attention to some stimuli while disregarding others (Ch. 11).
Retreat  According to Perry's theory of ethical development, when someone retreats to an earlier ethical position (Ch. 13).
Retrieval  Obtaining information from memory (Ch. 7).
Reversibility  Children cannot reverse their thinking (Chs. 7 and 9).
Rh factor  An incompatibility between the blood types of mother and child; if the mother is Rh-negative and the child is Rh-positive, miscarriage or even infant death can result (Ch. 4).
Risk factors  Stressors that individuals experience (Chs. 12 and 16).
Role discontinuity  Abrupt and disruptive change caused by conflicts among one's various roles in life (Ch. 18).
Scaffolding  Helping children move from initial difficulties with a topic to a point where, with help, they gradually learn to perform the task independently (Ch. 2).
Schemes  Piaget's term to describe the patterns of behavior that infants use to interact with their environment (Ch. 2).
Secondary circular reactions  Infants direct their activities toward objects and events outside themselves (Ch. 5).
Secular trend  The phenomenon (in recent centuries) of adolescents entering puberty sooner and growing taller and heavier (Ch. 11).
Self-concept  Children know who they are and what makes them different from everyone else (Ch. 10).
Self-control  Restraint exercised over impulses, emotions, and desires (Ch. 10).
Self-esteem  Children possess feelings of confidence and satisfaction with one's self (Ch. 10).
Self-fulfilling prophecy  Making an idea come true simply by believing it will (Ch. 15).
Semantic cues  Readers relate words to what they signify (Ch. 9).
Semantics  Describes how to interpret the meaning of words (Chs. 5 and 7).
Sensitive periods  Certain times in the lifespan when a particular experience has a greater and more lasting impact than at another time (Ch. 7).
Sensitive responsiveness  The ability to recognize the meaning of a child's behavior (Ch. 6).
Sensorimotor period  Piaget's term for the first of his cognitive stages of development (0 to 2 years) (Ch. 5).
Sequential (longitudinal/cross-sectional) studies  A cross-sectional study done at several times with the same groups of individuals (Ch. 1).
Seriation  The process by which concrete operational children can arrange objects by increasing or decreasing size (Ch. 9).
Sex cleavage  Youngsters of the same sex tend to play and do things together (Ch. 8).
Sex-linked inheritance  Genes on the sex chromosome that produce traits other than sex (Ch. 3).
Sexually transmitted infections (STIs)  A class of infections that are transmitted through sexual behavior (Ch. 12).
Sibling underworld  Communication among siblings without parental knowledge (Ch. 8).
Siblings  Brothers and sisters (Ch. 8).
Sickle-cell anemia  A chromosomal disorder resulting in abnormal hemoglobin (Ch. 3).
Silence  Belenky's first phase of women's thinking, characterized by concepts of right and wrong (Ch. 13).
Slow-to-warm-up children  Children with low intensity of reactions; may be rather negative when encountering anything new (Ch. 6).
Social (cognitive) learning theory  Bandura's theory that refers to the process whereby the information we glean from observing others influences our behavior (Ch. 2).
Social death  The point at which a patient is treated essentially as a corpse, although perhaps still "clinically" or "biologically" alive (Ch. 19).
Social perspective-taking  The idea that children's views on how to relate to others emerge from their personal theories about the traits of others (Ch. 10).
Socialization  Refers to the need to establish and maintain relations with others and to regulate behavior according to society's demands (Ch. 8).
Socioemotional selectivity theory  According to this theory, humans use social contact for four reasons: to obtain physical survival, to get information they need, to maintain a sense of self, and to acquire pleasure and comfort. For the elderly the last two are most important (Ch. 18).
Solidarity  Erikson's term for the personality style of persons who are able to commit themselves in concrete affiliations and partnerships with others and have developed the "ethical strength to abide by such commitments, even though they may call for significant sacrifices and compromises" (Ch. 14).
Span of apprehension  How much information a person can attend to at one time (Ch. 7).
Spina bifida  A genetic disorder resulting in the failure of the neural tube to close (Ch. 3).
Spindle cell  Neurons that play a large role in emotion (Ch. 11).
Stability  A belief that children's early experiences affect them for life (Ch. 1).
Stage of exhaustion  Selye's term for the body's physiological responses that revert to their condition during the stage of alarm (Ch. 16).
Stage of resistance  Selye's term for the body's reaction that is generally a reversal of the alarm reaction (Ch. 16).
Stage theorists  Researchers who believe that research based on personality traits is too narrow in focus and that we must also look at the stages of change each person goes through(Ch. 16).
Stagnation  According to Erikson, the seventh stage of life (middle-aged adulthood) tends to be marked either by generativity or by stagnation—boredom, self-indulgence, and the inability to contribute to society (Ch. 16).
State of identity  If individuals were in a state of identity (an ideal circumstance), the various aspects of their self-image would be in agreement with each other; they would be identical (Ch. 11).
Stillbirth  The term used to describe, after the 20th week, the spontaneous end of a pregnancy if the baby is born dead (Ch. 4).
Stress  Anything that upsets our equilibrium—both psychological and physiological (Ch. 10).
Structure-building  Levinson's term. During structure-building periods, individuals face the task of building a stable structure around choices they have made (Ch. 14).
Structure-changing  Levinson's term. A process of reappraising the existing life structure and exploring the possibilities for new life structures characterizes the structure-changing period (Ch. 14).
Subculture  A subgroup within a culture—in this case, a social culture (Ch. 12).
Subjective knowledge  Belenky's third phase of women's thinking; characterized by some crisis of male authority that sparks a distrust of outside sources of knowledge and some experience that confirms a trust in women thinkers themselves (Ch. 13).
Sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS)  Death of an apparently healthy infant, usually between 2 and 4 months of age; thought to be a brain-related respiratory problem (Ch. 5).
Superego  One of the three structures of the psyche, according to Freud; acts as a conscience (Ch. 2).
Symbolic play  The game of pretending; one of five preoperational behavior patterns (Ch. 7).
Symmetry  An infant's capacity for attention; style of responding influences interactions (Ch. 6).
Synchrony  The ability of parents to adjust their behavior to that of an infant (Ch. 6).
Syntax  Describes how we learn to put words together to form sentences (Chs. 5 and 7).
Syphilis  A sexually transmitted infection that presents a great danger in that in its early stage there are no symptoms. If untreated, it can be fatal (Chs. 4 and 12).
Tabula rasa  John Locke's belief that we are born with minds that are blank slates (Ch. 1).
Telegraphic speech  Initial multiple-word utterances, usually two or three words (Ch. 5).
Temperament  A child's basic personality, which is thought to be discernible soon after birth; how a child interacts with the environment (Chs. 6 and 10).
Temporizing  An aspect of Perry's theory of ethical development, in which some people remain in one position for a year or more, exploring its implications but hesitating to make any further progress (Ch. 13).
Teratogens  Any agents that can cause abnormalities, including drugs, chemicals, infections, pollutants, and the mother's physical state (Ch. 4).
Tertiary circular reactions  Repetition with variation; the infant is exploring the world's possibilities (Ch. 5).
Thalidomide  A popular drug prescribed during the early 1960s, which was later found to cause a variety of birth defects when taken by women early in their pregnancy (Ch. 4).
Theory of mind  Children's realization that others' thoughts affect their behavior (Ch. 7).
Time variable design  The number of times and the number of groups studied (Ch. 1).
Toxoplasmosis  Caused by a protozoan, it may cause damage to the nervous system; transmitted by animals, especially cats (Ch. 4).
Traditional marriage enterprise  Levinson's term. The main goal of this type of marriage is to form and maintain a family (Ch. 16).
Trait theorists  Researchers who look at pieces of the personality (personality traits), as measured by detailed questionnaires (Ch. 16).
Transition  Levinson's concept that each new era begins as an old era is approaching its end. That "in-between" time is a transition (Ch. 14).
Transition-linked turning points  The precursors and outcomes of a variety of transitions. A constellation of events that define the transition period or the timing and sequence of events that occur within a transitional period. For example, puberty and school events are frequently studied as key transitions signaling the entry into adolescence (Ch. 11).
Treatment  The variable that the experimenter manipulates (Ch. 1).
Triarchic model of intelligence  A three-tier explanation of intelligence proposed by Robert Sternberg (Ch. 9).
Turner syndrome  Females with the XO chromosomal pattern (Ch. 3).
Ultrasound  The use of sound waves to produce an image that enables a physician to detect structural abnormalities (Ch. 4).
Umbilical cord  Contains blood vessels that go to and from the mother through the arteries and veins supplying the placenta (Ch. 4).
Uniform growth  Montessori's term to describe the developmental period in which children show considerable stability (Ch. 7).
Universalizing faith  The final developmental step of Fowler's theory of faith. Here the individual lives in the real world but is not of it. Such persons do not merely recognize the mutuality of existence; they act on the basis of it (Ch. 19).
Validation  Fromm's term for the reciprocal sharing of deep secrets and feelings that allows people to feel loved and accepted (Ch. 14).
Vocables  Consistent sound patterns to refer to objects and events (Ch. 5).
Wear and tear theory  The theory that aging is due to the cumulative effects of hard work and lifelong stress (Ch. 17).
Wisdom  The combination of experience and learning the leads to making excellent choices (Ch. 17).
Work-family conflict  Competition between work and family goals can cause conflict (Ch. 15).
Zone of proximal development  The distance between a child's actual developmental level and a higher level of potential development with adult guidance (what children can do independently and what they can do with help) (Ch. 2).
Zygote  The fertilized egg (Ch. 3).





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