| external validity | The extent to which the results of a research study can be generalized to different populations, settings, and conditions.
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| time sampling | Selection of observation intervals either systematically or randomly with the goal of obtaining a representative sample of behavior.
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| situation sampling | Random or systematic selection of situations in which observations are made with the goal of representativeness across circumstances, locations, and conditions.
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| naturalistic observation | Observation of behavior in a more or less natural setting without any attempt by the observer to intervene.
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| participant observation | Observation of behavior by someone who also has an active and significant role in the situation or context in which behavior is recorded.
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| structured observation | Variety of observational methods using intervention in which the degree of control is often less than in field experiments; frequently used by clinical and developmental psychologists when making behavioral assessments.
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| field experiment | Procedure in which one or more independent variables is manipulated by an observer in a natural setting to determine the effect on behavior.
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| narrative records | Record intended to provide a more or less faithful reproduction of behavior as it originally occurred.
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| measurement scale | One of four levels of physical and psychological measurement: nominal (categorizing), ordinal (ranking), interval (specifying distance between stimuli), and ratio (having an absolute zero point).
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| data reduction | Process in the analysis of behavioral data whereby results are meaningfully organized and statements summarizing important findings are prepared.
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| coding | The initial step in data reduction, especially with narrative records, in which units of behavior or particular events are identified and classified according to specific criteria.
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| interobserver reliability | Degree to which two independent observers are in agreement.
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| correlation coefficient | Statistic indicating how well two measures vary together; absolute size ranges from 0.0 (no correlation) to 1.00 (perfect correlation); direction of covariation is indicated by the sign of the coefficient, a plus (+) indicating that both measures covary in the same direction and a minus (-) indicating that the variables vary in opposite directions.
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| reactivity | Influence that an observer has on the behavior under observation; behavior influenced by an observer may not be representative of behavior when an observer is not present.
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| demand characteristics | Cues and other information used by participants to guide their behavior in a psychological study, often leading participants to do what they believe the observer (experimenter) expects them to do.
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| observer bias | Systematic errors in observation often resulting from the observer's expectancies regarding the outcome of a study (i.e., expectancy effects).
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