Consumer motivations are energizing forces that activate
behavior and provide purpose and direction to that
behavior. There are numerous motivation theories.
Maslow's need hierarchy states that basic motives must
be minimally satisfied before more advanced motives
are activated. It proposes five levels of motivation:
physiological, safety, belongingness, esteem, and self-actualization.
McGuire developed a more detailed set of motives --
the needs for consistency, attribution, categorization,
objectification, autonomy, stimulation, desired outcomes
(teleological), utility, tension reduction, expression,
ego defense, reinforcement, assertion, affiliation,
identification, and modeling.
Consumers are often aware of and will admit to the
motives causing their behavior. These are manifest
motives. They can be discovered by standard marketing
research techniques such as direct questioning. Direct
advertising appeals can be made to these motives. At
other times, consumers are unable or unwilling to admit
to the motives that are influencing them. These are
latent motives. They can be determined by motivation
research techniques such as word association, sentence
completion, and picture response. Although direct advertising
appeals can be used, indirect appeals are often
necessary. Both manifest and latent motives are operative
in many purchase situations.
Because of the large number of motives and the
many different situations that consumers face, motivational
conflict can occur. In an approach–approach conflict,
the consumer faces a choice between two attractive
alternatives. In an approach–avoidance conflict, the
consumer faces both positive and negative consequences
in the purchase of a particular product. And finally,
in an avoidance–avoidance conflict, the consumer
faces two undesirable alternatives.
Involvement is a motivational state caused by consumer
perceptions that a product, brand, or advertisement
is relevant or interesting. Consumer needs play a
strong role in shaping involvement and marketers must
adapt their strategies depending on the level (high versus
low) and type (enduring versus situational) of involvement
exhibited by their target audience.
The personality of a consumer guides and directs the
behavior chosen to accomplish goals in different situations.
Trait theories of personality assume that (1) all individuals
have internal characteristics or traits related to
action tendencies, and (2) there are consistent and measurable
differences between individuals on those characteristics.
Most of these theories assume that traits are
formed at an early age and are relatively unchanging
over the years.
Multitrait theories attempt to capture a significant
portion of a consumer's total personality using a set of
personality attributes. The Five-Factor Model of personality
is the most widely used multitrait approach.
Single-trait theories focus on one aspect of personality
in an attempt to understand a limited part of consumer
behavior. Various traits related specifically to consumer
behavior include consumer ethnocentricity, need for
cognition, and consumers' need for uniqueness.
Brands, like individuals, have personalities, and consumers
tend to prefer products with brand personalities
that are pleasing to them. Consumers also prefer advertising
messages that portray their own or a desired personality.
Brand personality can be communicated in a number
of ways including celebrity endorsers, user imagery,
and executional ad elements such as tone and pace.
Emotions are strong, relatively uncontrollable feelings
that affect our behavior. Emotions occur when environmental
events or our mental processes trigger
physiological changes such as increased heart rate.
These changes are interpreted as specific emotions resulting
from the situation. They affect consumers'
thoughts and behaviors. Marketers design and position
products to both arouse and reduce emotions. Advertisements
include emotion-arousing material to increase
attention, degree of processing, remembering, and
brand preference through classical conditioning or direct
evaluation.
