Consumers must learn almost everything related to
being a consumer -- product existence, performance,
availability, values, preference, and so forth. Marketing
managers, therefore, are very interested in the nature of
consumer learning and memory.
Memory is the result of learning, which involves information
processing. Most commonly, information
goes directly into short-term memory for processing
where two basic activities occur -- maintenance rehearsal
and elaborative activities. Maintenance rehearsal is the
continual repetition of a piece of information in order to
hold it in current memory. Elaborative activities are the
use of stored experiences, values, attitudes, and feelings
to interpret and evaluate information in current memory.
Long-term memory is information from previous
information processing that has been stored for future
use. LTM undergoes continual restructuring as new
information is acquired. Information is stored in longterm
memory in associative networks or schemas. Consumers
often organize information in long-term memory
around brands in the form of brand schemas. These
schemas represent the brand's image in terms of key attributes,
feelings, experiences, and so on.
Learning is defined as any change in the content or
organization of long-term memory. Consumers learn in
various ways, which can be broadly classified into highversus
low-involvement learning. High-involvement
learning occurs when an individual is motivated to acquire
the information. Low-involvement learning occurs
when an individual is paying only limited or indirect attention
to an advertisement or other message. Low-involvement
learning tends to be limited due to a lack of
elaborative activities.
Learning can also be classified as either conditioned
or cognitive. There are two forms of conditioned learning --
classical and operant. Classical conditioning attempts
to create an association between a stimulus (e.g.,
brand name) and some response (e.g., behavior or feeling)
and is generally low-involvement in nature. Operant
conditioning attempts to create an association between
a response (e.g., buying a brand) and some
outcome (e.g., satisfaction) that serves to reinforce the
response and is generally high-involvement in nature.
The cognitive approach to learning encompasses the
mental activities of humans as they work to solve problems,
cope with complex situations, or function effectively
in their environment. Cognitive learning includes
iconic rote learning (generally low involvement), vicarious
learning/modeling (low or high involvement), and
analytical reasoning (generally high involvement).
Stimulus generalization is one way of transferring
learning by generalizing from one stimulus situation to
other, similar ones. Stimulus discrimination refers to the
opposite process of learning -- responding differently to
somewhat similar stimuli. The ability of consumers to
differentiate and generalize is critical for successful
brand positioning and leverage.
Once learned, information is retrieved from longterm
memory for use in evaluations and decisions. Retrieval
failures or extinction of a learned response represents
a reduction in marketing effectiveness.
Retrieval depends on strength of initial learning, memory
interference, and the response environment.
Strength of learning depends on six basic factors: importance,
message involvement, reinforcement, mood,
repetition, and dual coding. Importance refers to the
value that the consumer places on the information to be
learned -- greater importance increases learning and retrieval.
Message involvement is the degree to which the
consumer is interested in the message itself -- the
greater the message involvement, the greater the learning
and retrieval. Reinforcement is anything that
increases the likelihood that a response will be repeated
in the future -- the greater the reinforcement, the greater
the learning and retrieval. Mood is the temporary mental
state or feeling of the consumer. Learning and memory
appear to be greater in positive mood conditions.
Repetition refers to the number of times that we are
exposed to the information or that we engage in a behavior.
Repetition increases learning and memory, but
can also lead to wearout. Dual coding involves creating
multiple complementary pathways to a concept in longterm
memory. Dual coding increases learning and
retrieval.
Memory interference occurs when consumers have
difficulty retrieving a specific piece of information because
other related information in memory gets in the
way. A common form of memory interference is due to
competitive advertising. Competitive interference increases
with increased advertising clutter. But, it can be
reduced by avoiding competitive clutter, strengthening
learning, reducing similarity to competitor ads, and providing
retrieval cues.
The response environment can also be critical to retrieval.
Matching the response environment to the learning
environment, or matching the learning environment to the response environment can enhance the ease and
likelihood of retrieval.
Brand image, a market segment or individual consumer's
schematic memory of a brand, is a major focus
of marketing activity. Product positioning is a decision
by a marketer to attempt to attain a defined and differentiated
brand image, generally in relation to specific
competitors. A brand image that matches a target market's
needs and desires will be valued by that market
segment. Such a brand is said to have brand equity because
consumers respond favorably toward it in the
market. In addition, these consumers may be willing to
assume that other products with the same brand name
will have some of the same features. Introducing new
products under the same name as an existing product is
referred to as brand leverage or brand extension.
