Glossary (See related pages) abnormal behavior   Behavior that is personally distressful, personally dysfunctional, and/or so culturally deviant that other people judge it to be inappropriate or maladaptive. absolute refractory period   The brief time interval following an action potential when a neuron is incapable of being stimulated to another impulse. absolute threshold   The lowest intensity at which a stimulus can be detected 50 percent of the time. abstinence violation effect   A response to a lapse in which a person blames himself or herself and concludes that he or she is incapable of resisting high-risk situations. accommodation   In cognitive development, the process by which new experiences cause existing schemas to change. acetylcholine (ACh)   An excitatory neurotransmitter that operates at synapses with muscles and is also the transmitter in some neural networks involved in memory. achievement goal theory   A theory of achievement motivation that stresses the goals (ego versus mastery) and motivational climates that influence achievement strivings. achievement test   A measure of an individual's degree of accomplishment in a particular subject or task based on a relatively standardized set of experiences. action potential   A nerve impulse resulting from the depolarization of an axon's cell membrane. activation-synthesis theory   Maintains that dreams represent the brain's attempt to interpret random patterns of neural activation triggered by the brain stem during sleep. adaptations   Biological and behavioral changes that allow organisms to meet recurring environmental challenges to their survival, thereby increasing their reproductive ability. adaptive significance   The manner in which a particular behavior enhances an organism's chances of survival and reproduction in its natural environment. adolescence   The period of development that involves a gradual transition between childhood and adulthood. adolescent egocentrism   Highly selffocused thinking, particularly in the early teenage years. adoption study   A research method in behavior genetics in which adopted people are compared on some characteristic with both their biological and adoptive parents in an attempt to determine the strength of the characteristic's genetic component. adrenal glands   Endocrine glands that release stress hormones, including catecholamines and cortichosteroids. aerobic exercise   Sustained activity that elevates the heart rate and increases the body's need for oxygen. agonist   A drug that increases or mimics the activity of a neurotransmitter. agoraphobia   A fear of being in places or situations (e.g., on a bridge or a bus, in crowds or wide open spaces) from which escape might be difficult in the event of sudden incapacitation. alcohol myopia   When intoxicated, a "shortsightedness" in thinking (a failure to consider consequences) caused by an inability to pay attention to as much information as when sober. algorithms   Procedures, such as mathematical formulas, that automatically generate correct solutions to problems. all-or-none law   States that an action potential is not proportional to the intensity of stimulation; a neuron either fires with maximum intensity or it does not fire (compare with graded potential). alpha waves   A brain-wave pattern of 8 to 12 cycles per second that is characteristic of humans in a relaxed, drowsy state. Alzheimer's disease (AD)   A brain disorder, typically but not always occurring in old age, whose prominent features are memory loss and confused thinking. amplitude   The vertical size of the sound wave, which gives rise to the perception of loudness and is measured in terms of decibels. amygdala   A limbic system structure that helps organize emotional response patterns. anorexia nervosa   An eating disorder involving a severe and sometimes fatal restriction of food intake. antagonist   A drug that inhibits or decreases the action of a neurotransmitter. anterograde amnesia   Memory loss for events that occur after the initial onset of amnesia. anticipatory nausea and vomiting (ANV)   Classically conditioned nausea and vomiting that occur when cancer patients are exposed to stimuli associated with their treatment. antigens   Literally, antibody generators, or foreign substances that activate the cells of the immune system. antisocial personality disorder   A longterm stable disorder characterized by a lack of conscience, defects in empathy, and a tendency to act out in an impulsive manner that disregards future consequences. anxiety disorders   A group of behavior disorders in which anxiety and associated maladaptive behaviors are the core of the disturbance. anxiety   An emotional state characterized by apprehension accompanied by physiological arousal and fearful behavior. aphasia   The partial or total loss of ability to understand speech (receptive aphasia) or to produce it (productive aphasia). applied behavior analysis   A process in which operant conditioning is combined with scientific data collection to solve individual and societal problems. applied research   Research that is designed to solve or examine specific, practical problems. approach-approach conflict   A conflict in which an individual is simultaneously attracted to two incompatible positive goals. approach-avoidance conflict   A conflict in which an individual is simultaneously attracted to and repelled by the same goal. aptitude test   A measure of a person's ability to profit from further training or experience in an occupation or skill; usually based on a measure of skills gained over a person's lifetime rather than during a specific course of study. archetypes   In Jung's theory, innate concepts and memories (e.g., God, the hero, the good mother); memories that reside in the collective unconscious. archival measures   Records or past documents that contain information about some type of behavior. assimilation   In cognitive development, the process by which new experiences are incorporated into existing schemas. association cortex   The areas of the cerebral cortex that do not have sensory or motor functions but are involved in the integration of neural activity that underlies perception, language, and other higher-order mental processes. associative network   The view that long-term memory is organized as a massive network of associated ideas and concepts. attachment   The strong emotional bond that develops between two people; developmentally, the bond between children and their primary caregivers. attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)   A disorder, usually originating in childhood, that may take the form of attentional difficulties, hyperactivity/ impulsivity, or a combination of the two that results in impaired functioning. attitude   A positive or negative evaluative reaction toward a stimulus (e.g., toward a person, action, object, or concept). attribution   A judgment about the causes of our own and other people's behavior. authoritarian parents   Caregivers who exert control over their children within a cold, unresponsive, or rejecting relationship. authoritative parents   Caregivers who are controlling but warm; they establish and enforce clear rules within a caring, supportive atmosphere. autistic disorder   A severe developmental disorder characterized by extreme unresponsiveness to others, poor communication skills, and highly repetitive and rigid behavior patterns. autobiographical memories   Recollections of personally experienced events that make up the "story of our life." automatic (unconscious) processing   Mental activities that occur with minimal or no conscious control or awareness. autonomic nervous system   The branch of the peripheral nervous system that stimulates the body's involuntary muscles (e.g., heart) and internal organs. availability heuristic   A rule of thumb used to make likelihood judgments based on how easily examples of that category of events come to mind or are "available" in memory. aversion therapy   A form of therapy in which a conditioned stimulus that currently evokes a positive but maladaptive response is paired with a noxious, unpleasant unconditioned stimulus, in an attempt to condition a repulsion toward the conditioned stimulus. aversive punishment (positive punishment, punishment by application)   A type of punishment in which an operant response is weakened by the subsequent presentation of a noxious stimulus. avoidance conditioning   A form of learning in which, an organism learns a response to avoid an undesirable consequence. avoidance-avoidance conflict   A conflict in which an individual must choose between two undesirable alternatives. axon   An extension from one side of the neuron cell body that conducts nerve impulses to other neurons, muscles, or glands. basic research   Research designed to obtain knowledge for its own sake. basilar membrane   A membrane that runs the length of the cochlea and contains the organ of Corti and its sound receptor hair cells. behavior genetics   The scientific study of the role of genetic inheritance in behavior. behavior modification   Therapeutic procedures based on operant conditioning principles, such as positive reinforcement, operant extinction, and punishment. behavior-outcome expectancy   The subjective likelihood that a particular consequence will follow a particular behavior in a given situation. behavioral activation system (BAS)   A neural system that is activated by cues indicating potential reward and positive need gratification. Activity in this neural system causes the person to begin or to increase movement toward positive goals in anticipation of pleasure. behavioral activation treatment   A treatment for depression that engages clients in life activities designed to increase positive reinforcement in their lives. behavioral assessment   The measurement of behavior through direct observation and application of a coding system. behavioral inhibition system (BIS)   A neural system that is activated by cues indicating potential pain, nonreinforcement, and punishment. Activity in this neural system produces fear, inhibition of behavior, as well as escape and avoidance behaviors. behavioral neuroscience   A subfield of psychology that examines brain processes and other physiological functions that underlie our behavior, sensory experiences, emotions, and thoughts. behavioral perspective   A view that emphasizes how the environment and learning experiences shape and control behavior. behavioral signatures   Consistent ways of responding in particular classes of situations. behaviorism   A school of psychology that emphasizes the effects of learning and environmental control on behavior and maintains that the proper subject matter of psychology is observable behavior. belief bias   The tendency to abandon logical rules and to form a conclusion based on one's existing beliefs. beta waves   A brain-wave pattern of 15 to 30 cycles per second that is characteristic of humans who are in an alert waking state. bilingualism   The use of two languages in daily life. binocular depth cues   Depth cues that require the use of both eyes. binocular disparity   The binocular depth cues produced by the projection of slightly different images of an object on the retinas of the two eyes. biological perspective   A view that focuses on the role of biological factors in behavior, including biochemical and brain processes, as well as genetic and evolutionary factors. biologically based mechanisms   Evolved biological structures that receive input from the environment, process the information, and respond to it. bipolar disorder   A mood disorder in which intermittent mania appears against a background of depression. blindsight   A disorder in which people are blind in part of their visual field yet, in special tests, respond to stimuli in that field despite reporting that they can't see those stimuli. blood-brain barrier   A specialized lining of cells in the brain's blood vessels that screens out foreign substances while letting nutrients pass through to neurons. borderline personality disorder (BPD)   A serious personality disorder characterized by severe instability in behavior, emotion, identity, and interpersonal relationships. bottom-up processing   Perceptual processes that begin with the analysis of individual elements of the stimulus and work up to the brain's integration of them into a unified perception. brain stem   The portion of the brain formed by the swelling of the spinal cord as it enters the skull; its structures regulate basic survival functions of the body, such as heart rate and respiration. British empiricism   A 17th-century school of philosophy championed by Locke, according to which all the contents of the mind are gained experientially through the senses. Broca's area   A region of the left frontal lobe involved in speech production. bulimia nervosa   An eating disorder that involves a repeated cycle of binge eating followed by purging of the food. bystander effect   The principle that the presence of multiple bystanders inhibits each person's tendency to help, largely due to social comparison or diffusion of responsibility. Cannon-Bard theory   A theory of emotion that proposed that the thalamus sends simultaneous messages to the cortex (producing our experience of emotion) and to the viscera and skeletal muscles, producing actions and physiological responses. case study   An in-depth analysis of an individual, group, or event. catatonic schizophrenia   A schizophrenic reaction characterized by alternating stuporous states and agitated excitement, during which the person can be quite dangerous. catharsis   The idea that performing an act of aggression discharges aggressive energy and temporarily reduces our impulse to aggress. central nervous system   The portion of the nervous system that includes the brain and the spinal cord. central route to persuasion   Occurs when people think carefully about a message and are influenced because they find the arguments compelling. cephalocaudal principle   The tendency for physical development to proceed in a head-to-foot direction. cerebellum   A convoluted hindbrain structure involved in motor coordination and some aspects of learning and memory. cerebral cortex   The gray, convoluted outer covering of the brain that is the seat of higher-order sensory, motor, perceptual, and mental processes. cerebrum   The most advanced portion of the brain, containing the cerebral cortex and underlying structures. chaining   An operant conditioning procedure used to develop a sequence (chain) of responses by reinforcing each response with the opportunity to perform the next response. cholecystokinin (CCK)   A peptide (hormone) that helps produce satiety and cessation of eating. chromosomes   Tightly coiled strands of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and protein that contain the genes. chunking   Combining individual items into larger units of meaning. circadian rhythms   Biological cycles within the body that occur on an approximately 24-hour cycle. classical conditioning   A procedure in which a formerly neutral stimulus (the conditioned stimulus) comes to elicit a conditioned response by virtue of being paired with an unconditioned stimulus that naturally elicits a similar response (the unconditioned response). cochlea   A small coil-shaped structure of the inner ear that contains the receptors for sound. cognitive appraisal   The process of making judgments about situations, personal capabilities, likely consequences, and personal meaning of consequences. cognitive behaviorism   A behavioral approach that incorporates cognitive concepts, suggesting that the environment influences our behavior by affecting our thoughts and giving us information. cognitive map   A mental representation of the spatial layout of an area. cognitive neuroscience   An area of psychology that intersects the subfields of cognitive psychology and physiological psychology and examines brain processes that underlie mental activity. cognitive perspective   A view that emphasizes humans as rational information processors and problem solvers, and that focuses on the mental processes that influence behavior. cognitive process theories   Approaches to intelligence that analyze the mental processes that underlie intelligent thinking. cognitive psychology   An area of psychology that specializes in studying mental processes such as thinking, memory, planning, reasoning, attention, and perception. cognitive relaxation   A state of mental quiescence produced by meditation and other methods. cognitive restructuring   A cognitive stress-reduction approach that involves attempts to detect, dispute, and change maladaptive or irrational ideas that trigger negative emotions. cognitive-affective personality system (CAPS)   A model that organizes five person variables that account for how a person might respond to a particular situation; the dynamic interplay among these five factors, together with the characteristics of the situation, accounts for individual differences between people, as well as differences in people's behavior across different situations. cognitive-process dream theories   Approaches that focus on how (rather than why) we dream, and propose that dreaming and waking thought are produced by the same mental systems in the brain. collective unconscious   Jung's notion of an unconscious that consists of innate ancestral memories. collectivism   A cultural orientation that emphasizes the achievement of group rather than individual goals and in which personal identity is largely defined by ties to the larger social group (compare with individualism). common factors   Therapeutic elements that are possessed by virtually any type of therapy and that may contribute to the similar positive effects shown by many different treatment approaches. communicator credibility   The degree to which an audience views a communicator as believable, largely based on the communicator's expertise and trustworthiness. companionate love   An affectionate relationship characterized by commitment and caring about the partner's wellbeing; sometimes contrasted with passionate love, which is more intensely emotional. compensatory response   A bodily response that opposes a drug's effects and occurs in an attempt to restore homeostasis. competency-focused intervention   Prevention programs that are designed to enhance personal resources needed to cope with situations that might otherwise cause psychological disorders. competency   A legal decision that a defendant is mentally capable of understanding the nature of the charges, participating meaningfully in the trial, and consulting with his or her attorney. compulsion   A repetitive act that the person feels compelled to carry out, often in response to an obsessive thought or image. computerized axial tomography (CT, or CAT) scan   A method of scanning the brain with narrow beams of X rays that are then analyzed and combined by a computer to provide pictures of brain structures from many different angles. concept   A mental category containing similiar objects, people, and events. concordance   The likelihood that two people share a particular characteristic. concrete operational stage   In Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development during which children can perform basic mental operations concerning problems that involve tangible (i.e., "concrete") objects and situations. conditioned response (CR)   In classical conditioning, a response to a conditioned stimulus; the conditioned response is established by pairing a conditioned stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus that evokes a similar response. conditioned stimulus (CS)   A neutral stimulus that comes to evoke a conditioned response after being paired with an unconditioned stimulus. conditioned taste aversion   A learned repulsion to a food that formerly was neutral or desired, by virtue of pairing the food with an aversive unconditioned stimulus. conditions of worth   Internalized standards for self-worth fostered by conditional positive regard from others. conduct disorder   A pattern of abnormal behavior in which children violate important social norms and show disregard for the rights of others. conduction deafness   Hearing loss caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea. cones   Photoreceptors in the retina that function best in bright light and are differentially sensitive to red, green, or blue wavelengths. confirmation bias   The tendency to seek and favor information that reinforces our beliefs rather than to be open to disconfirming information. confounding of variables   In experiments, a situation in which the independent variable is intertwined or mixed up with another, uncontrolled variable; thus we cannot tell which variable is responsible for changes in the behavior of interest (i.e., in the dependent variable). congruence   Consistency between selfperceptions and experience. consciousness   Our moment-to-moment awareness of ourselves and our environment; consciousness involves selective attention to ongoing thoughts, perceptions, and feelings. conservation   The principle that basic properties of objects, such as their mass or quantity, stay the same (are "conserved") even though their outward appearance may change. construct validity   The extent to which a test measures the psychological construct (e.g., intelligence, anxiety) that it is purported to measure. content validity   The extent to which test items adequately sample the domain that the test is supposed to measure (e.g., intelligence, mathematical reasoning). context-dependent memory   The phenomenon that it is typically easier to remember something in the same environment in which it was originally learned or experienced. continuous reinforcement   A reinforcement schedule in which each response of a particular type is followed by reinforcement. control group   In an experiment, the group that either is not exposed to the treatment or receives a zero level of the independent variable. controlled (conscious) processing   Mental processing that requires volitional control and attentiveness. conventional moral reasoning   According to Kohlberg, the stage at which moral judgments are based on conformity to social expectations, laws, and duties. convergence   A binocular depth cue produced by the muscles that rotate the eyes as they focus on nearby objects. conversion disorder   A disorder in which serious neurological symptoms, such as paralysis, loss of sensation, or blindness suddenly occur without physical cause. coping self-efficacy   Beliefs relating to our ability to deal effectively with a stressful stimulus or situation, including pain. corpus callosum   A broad band of white, myelinated fibers that connects the left and right cerebral hemispheres and allows the two hemispheres to communicate with one another. correlation coefficient   A statistic that indicates the direction and strength of a relation between two variables; values can range from +1.00 to -1.00. correlational research   Research that measures two or more naturally occurring variables and examines whether they are statistically related. counterbalancing   In experiments, a procedure in which each participant engages in all of the conditions. The order of the conditions is altered for different participants so that, overall, no condition has an advantage relative to the other conditions. counterconditioning   The process of conditioning an incompatible response to a particular stimulus to eliminate a maladaptive response (e.g., anxiety), as occurs in systematic desensitization. creativity   The ability to produce something that is both new and valuable. criterion-related validity   The ability of psychological test scores to correlate with some present or future behavior assumed to be influenced by the construct measured by the test. critical periods   Limited time periods during which plasticity can occur as a result of experience or in response to injury; in development, a time period in which exposure to particular kinds of stimulation is required for normal growth to occur. cross-sectional design   A research design that simultaneously compares people of different ages at a particular point in time. crystallized intelligence (gc)   Intellectual abilities that depend on a store of information and the acquisition of particular skills (compare with fluid intelligence). cultural display rules   Cultural norms that regulate when and how emotions are expressed. cultural psychology   An area of psychology, sometimes called cross-cultural psychology, that explores how culture is transmitted to its members and examines psychological similarities and differences that occur between people from diverse cultures. culturally competent therapists   Practitioners who have a set of therapeutic skills, including scientific mindedness, the ability to consider both cultural and individual factors, and the capacity to introduce culture-specific elements into therapy with people from minority cultures. culture-bound disorders   Behavior disorders whose specific forms are restricted to one particular cultural context. culture   The enduring values, beliefs, behaviors, and traditions that are shared by a large group of people and passed from one generation to the next. cytokines   Chemical molecules released by immune cells that produce fever and inflammation, promote the healing of injured tissue, and activate and direct other immune cells. dark adaptation   The progressive increase in brightness sensitivity that occurs over time as photopigments regenerate themselves during exposure to low levels of illumination. decay theory   Maintains that with time and disuse, the physical memory trace in the nervous system fades away. decibel   A logarithmic measure of sound intensity. decision criterion   In signal detection theory, the potentially changing standard of how certain a person must be that a stimulus is present in order to report its presence. declarative memory   Our memory for factual knowledge, which comprises two subcategories: knowledge pertaining to personal experiences (episodic memory) and knowledge of general facts and language (semantic memory). deductive reasoning   Reasoning from a general principle to a specific case. deep structure   A linguistic term that refers to the underlying meaning of a spoken or written sentence; the meanings that make up deep structure are stored as concepts and rules in long-term memory. defense mechanisms   Unconscious processes that help us cope with anxiety and the pain of traumatic experiences. Defense mechanisms prevent the expression of anxiety-arousing impulses or allow them to appear in disguised forms. deindividuation   A state of increased anonymity in which a person, often as part of a group or crowd, engages in disinhibited behavior. deinstitutionalization movement   The attempt to move the primary locus of treatment from mental hospitals to the community. delta waves   Low-frequency, highamplitude brain waves that occur in stage 3 sleep and predominate in stage 4 sleep. delusions   False beliefs, often involving themes of persecution or grandeur, that are sustained in the face of evidence that normally would be sufficient to destroy them. demand characteristics   Cues picked up by research participants to guess the purpose or hypothesis of a study, thereby causing them to alter their behavior. dementia   The gradual loss of cognitive abilities that accompanies brain deterioration and interferes with normal functioning. dendrites   Small branching fibers that extend from the soma of a neuron and receive messages from adjacent neurons. dependent variable   In an experiment, the factor measured by the researcher that presumably is influenced by the independent variable. depressants   Drugs—including alcohol, barbiturates, and tranquilizers—that reduce neural activity and can decrease feelings of tension and anxiety. depressive attributional pattern   The tendency of depressed people to attribute negative outcomes to their own inadequacies and positive outcomes to factors outside of themselves. depressive cognitive triad   A pattern of negative evaluations of the self, the world, and the future often found in depressed people. descriptive research   Research in which the main goal is to carefully describe how organisms behave, particularly in natural settings. descriptive statistics   Statistics that summarize and describe the characteristics of a set of scores. dialectical behavior therapy (DBT)   A recently developed cognitive-behavioral treatment for borderline personality disorder. difference threshold   The smallest difference between two similar stimuli that people can detect; also called the just noticeable difference (jnd). discourse   The combining of sentences into larger language units, such as paragraphs, articles, novels, and so on. discrimination (classical conditioning)   The occurrence of a conditioned response to one stimulus but not to another stimulus. discrimination (social behavior)   Treating people unfairly based on the group to which they belong. discriminative stimulus   An antecedent stimulus that signals the likelihood of certain consequences if a response is made. disorganized schizophrenia   A schizophrenic disorder marked by verbal incoherence, disordered thought processes, disorganized behavior, and inappropriate emotional responses. displacement   The capacity of language to represent objects and conditions that are not physically present. dissociation theories (of hypnosis)   Views that focus on hypnosis as an altered state involving a division ("dissociation") of consciousness; one theory proposes that the hypnotized person simultaneously experiences two streams of consciousness that are cut off from one another. dissociative disorders   Disorders that involve a major dissociation of personal identity or memory. dissociative identity disorder (DID)   A dissociative disorder in which two or more separate identities or personalities coexist within an individual. divergent thinking   A creative form of thinking that involves generating novel ideas that diverge from the normal ways of thinking about something. divided attention   The ability to perform more than one activity at the same time. dodo bird verdict   The conclusion reached by some psychotherapy researchers that virtually all treatment approaches have similar success rates. door-in-the-face technique   A manipulation technique in which a persuader makes a large request, expecting you to reject it, and then presents a smaller request. dopamine hypothesis   States that the symptoms of schizophrenia are produced by overactivity of the dopamine system in areas of the brain that regulate emotional expression, motivated behavior, and cognitive functioning. double-blind procedure   A procedure in which both the participant and the experimenter are kept unaware of the research condition to which the participant has been assigned. downward comparison   Seeing oneself as better off than the standard for comparison. drive   A state of internal tension that motivates an organism to behave in ways that reduce this tension. dual coding theory   Maintains that if we encode information using both verbal and imagery codes, the chances improve that at least one of the two codes will be available later to support recall. dual-process theory   A modern theory of color vision that combines the trichromatic and opponent-process theories. Light waves are coded by red-, blue-, and green-sensitive cones in the retina and by opponent processes thereafter in the visual system. dynamic testing   A procedure in which static (standardized testing) is followed up with an interaction in which the examiner gives the subject guided feedback on how to improve performance and observes how the subject utilizes the information. dysthymia   A depressive mood disorder of moderate intensity that occurs over a long period of time but does not disrupt functioning as a major depression does. eclecticism   An approach to therapy that incorporates principles and procedures from multiple therapies to provide the most suitable treatment to a client. effect size   In meta-analysis, a measure of treatment effectiveness that indicates what percentage of treated clients improve more than the average untreated client. ego orientation   In achievement goal theory, an orientation that defines success in terms of performing at a higher level than others. ego-approach goals   An achievement orientation that focuses on being judged successful as a result of outperforming others. ego-avoidance goals   An achievement orientation that focuses on avoiding negative judgments by self or others by failing to outperform others. ego   The "executive" of the personality that is partly conscious and that mediates between the impulses of the id, the prohibitions of the superego, and the dictates of reality. egocentrism   Difficulty in viewing the world from someone else's perspective. elaborative rehearsal   Focusing on the meaning of information or relating it to other things we already know. Electra complex   The female version of the Oedipus complex in which the female child experiences erotic feelings toward her father, desires to possess him sexually, and views her mother as a rival. electroencephalograph (EEG)   A device used to record the simultaneous activity of many thousands of neurons through electrodes attached to the scalp. eliciting stimuli   Internal or external cues that evoke an emotional response. embryo   A scientific term for the prenatal organism during the 2nd week through the 8th week after conception. emotion regulation   The processes by which we evaluate and modify our emotional reactions. emotion-focused coping   Coping strategies directed at minimizing or reducing emotional responses to a stressor. emotion   A pattern of cognitive, physiological, and behavioral responses to situations and events that have relevance to important goals or motives. emotional intelligence   The ability to respond adaptively in the emotional realm by reading and responding appropriately to others' emotions, to be aware of and have the ability to control one's own emotions. empathy-altruism hypothesis   The view that pure altruism does exist and that it is produced by the capacity to empathize with the person in need of aid. empathy   The capacity for experiencing the same emotional response being exhibited by another person; in therapy, the ability of a therapist to view the world through the client's eyes and to understand the client's emotions. empirical approach   An approach to test construction in which items (regardless of their content) are chosen that differentiate between two groups that are known to differ on a particular personality variable. empirically supported therapies (ESTs)   Psychotherapy and behavior-change techniques that have been shown to be efficacious in controlled clinical trials. encoding specificity principle   States that memory is enhanced when conditions present during retrieval match those that were present during encoding. encoding   Getting information into the memory system by translating it into a neural code that the brain processes and stores. endocrine system   The body's system of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream and thereby affect many bodily functions. endorphins   Natural opiate-like substances that are involved in pain reduction.