| accommodation | An adjustment to new information.
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| acculturation | Cultural change that results from continuous, firsthand contact between two distinctive cultural groups.
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| acculturative stress | The negative consequences that result from contact between two distinctive cultural groups.
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| active (niche-picking) genotype-environment correlations | Correlations that occur when children seek out environments that they find compatible and stimulating.
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| adolescence | The developmental period of transition from childhood to early adulthood; it involves biological, cognitive, and socioemotional changes.
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| adolescent egocentrism | The heightened self-consciousness of adolescents, which is reflected in their belief that others are as interested in them as they themselves are, and in their sense of personal uniqueness.
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| adolescent generalization gap | Adelson's concept of generalizations about adolescents based on information about a limited, highly visible group of adolescents.
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| adolescents who are gifted | Adolescents who have above-average intelligence (usually defined as an IQ of 130 or higher) and/or superior talent in some domain, such as art, music, or mathematics.
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| adoption study | A study in which investigators seek to discover whether the behavior and psychological characteristics of adopted children are more like their adoptive parents, who have provided a home environment, or more like those of their biological parents, who have contributed their heredity. Another form of adoption study involves comparing adoptive and biological siblings.
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| affectionate love | Also called companionate love, this love occurs when an individual desires to have another person near and has a deep, caring affection for that person.
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| AIDS | Acquired immune deficiency syndrome, a primarily sexually transmitted infection caused by the HIV virus, which destroys the body's immune system.
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| alternation model | This model assumes that it is possible for an individual to know and understand two different cultures. It also assumes that individuals can alter their behavior to fit a particular social context.
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| altruism | Unselfish interest in helping another person.
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| anabolic steroids | Drugs derived from the male sex hormone, testosterone. They promote muscle growth and lean body mass.
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| androgens | The main class of male sex hormones.
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| androgyny | The presence of a high degree of desirable feminine and masculine characteristics in the same individual.
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| anorexia nervosa | An eating disorder that involves the relentless pursuit of thinness through starvation.
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| anxiety | A vague, highly unpleasant feeling of fear and apprehension.
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| assimilation | The absorption of ethnic minority groups into the dominant group, which often means the loss of some or virtually all of the behavior and values of the ethnic minority group.
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| assimilation | The incorporation of new information into existing knowledge.
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| attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) | Children and adolescents with ADHD show one or more of the following characteristics over a period of time: inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity.
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| authoritarian parenting | This is a restrictive, punitive style in which the parent exhorts the adolescent to follow the parent's directions and to respect work and effort. Firm limits and controls are placed on the adolescent, and little verbal exchange is allowed. This style is associated with adolescents' socially incompetent behavior.
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| authoritarian strategy of classroom management | This teaching strategy is restrictive and punitive. The focus is mainly on keeping order in the classroom rather than on instruction and learning.
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| authoritative parenting | This style encourages adolescents to be independent but still places limits and controls on their actions. Extensive verbal give-and-take is allowed, and parents are warm and nurturant toward the adolescent. This style is associated with adolescents' socially competent behavior.
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| authoritative strategy of classroom management | This teaching strategy encourages students to be independent thinkers and doers, but still involves effective monitoring. Authoritative teachers engage students in considerable verbal give-and-take and show a caring attitude toward them. However, they still declare limits when necessary.
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| autonomous morality | The second stage of moral development in Piaget's theory, displayed by older children (about 10 years of age and older). The child becomes aware that rules and laws are created by people and that, in judging an action, one should consider the actor's intentions as well as the consequences.
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| average children | Children who receive an average number of both positive and negative nominations from their peers.
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| basal metabolism rate (BMR) | The minimum amount of energy an individual uses in a resting state.
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| behavior genetics | The field that seeks to discover the influence of heredity and environment on individual differences in human traits and development.
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| big five factors of personality | Five core traits of personality: openness to experience, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism (emotional stability).
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| biological processes | Physical changes in an individual's body.
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| biopsychosocial approach | Emphasizes that problems develop through an interaction of biological, psychological, and social factors.
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| bisexual | A person who is attracted to people of both sexes.
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| boundary ambiguity | The uncertainty in stepfamilies about who is in or out of the family and who is performing or responsible for certain tasks in the family system.
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| bulimia nervosa | An eating disorder in which the individual consistently follows a bingeand- purge eating pattern.
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| care perspective | The moral perspective of Carol Gilligan, which views people in terms of their connectedness with others and emphasizes interpersonal communication, relationships with others, and concern for others.
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| career self-concept theory | Super's theory that an individual's self-concepts play a central role in his or her career choices and that in adolescence individuals first construct their career self-concept.
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| case study | An in-depth look at a single individual.
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| character education | A direct moral education approach that involves teaching students a basic moral literacy to prevent them from engaging in immoral behavior or doing harm to themselves or others.
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| chlamydia | One of the most common sexually transmitted infections, named for Chlamydia trachomatis, an organism that spreads by sexual contact and infects the genital organs of both sexes.
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| chromosomes | Threadlike structures that contain deoxyribonucleic acid or DNA.
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| cliques | Small groups that range from two to about twelve individuals and average about five to six individuals.
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| cognitive constructivist approaches | Approaches that emphasize the adolescent's active, cognitive construction of knowledge and understanding; an example is Piaget's theory.
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| cognitive developmental theory of gender | In this view, children's gender-typing occurs after they have developed a concept of gender. Once they begin to consistently conceive of themselves as male or female, children often organize their world on the basis of gender.
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| cognitive disequilibrium theory | Hoffman's theory that adolescence is an important period in moral development, in which, because of broader experiences associated with the move to high school or college, individuals recognize that their set of beliefs is but one of many and that there is considerable debate about what is right and wrong.
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| cognitive moral education | An approach based on the belief that students should learn to value things like democracy and justice as their moral reasoning develops; Kohlberg's theory has been the basis for many of the cognitive moral education approaches.
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| cognitive processes | Changes in an individual's thinking and intelligence.
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| commitment | The part of identity development in which adolescents show a personal investment in what they are going to do.
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| concrete operational stage | Piaget's third stage, which lasts approximately from 7 to 11 years of age. In this stage, children can perform operations. Logical reasoning replaces intuitive thought as long as the reasoning can be applied to specific or concrete examples.
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| conduct disorder | The psychiatric diagnostic category for the occurrence of multiple delinquent activities over a six-month period. These behaviors include truancy, running away, fire setting, cruelty to animals, breaking and entering, and excessive fighting.
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| conformity | This occurs when individuals adopt the attitudes or behaviors of others because of real or imagined pressure from them.
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| conglomerate strategies | The use of a combination of techniques, rather than a single approach, to improve adolescents' social skills; also called coaching.
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| connectedness | An important element in adolescent identity development. It consists of two dimensions: mutuality, sensitivity to and respect for others' views; and permeability, openness to others' views.
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| conscience | The component of the superego that involves behaviors disapproved of by parents.
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| contexts | The settings in which development occurs. These settings are influenced by historical, economic, social, and cultural factors.
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| continuity view | A developmental view that emphasizes the role of early parent-child relationships in constructing a basic way of relating to people throughout the life span.
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| continuity-discontinuity issue | The issue regarding whether development involves gradual, cumulative change (continuity) or distinct stages (discontinuity).
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| controversial children | Children who are frequently nominated both as a best friend and as being disliked.
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| conventional reasoning | The second, or intermediate, level in Kohlberg's theory of moral development. Internalization is intermediate. Individuals abide by certain standards (internal), but they are the standards of others (external), such as parents or the laws of society.
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| convergent thinking | A pattern of thinking in which individuals produce one correct answer; characteristic of the items on conventional intelligence tests; coined by Guilford.
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| coping | Involves managing taxing circumstances, expending effort to solve life's problems, and seeking to master or reduce stress.
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| correlational research | The goal is to describe the strength of the relationship between two or more events or characteristics.
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| creativity | The ability to think in novel and unusual ways and discover unique solutions to problems.
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| crisis | A period of identity development during which the adolescent is choosing among meaningful alternatives.
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| critical thinking | Thinking reflectively and productively and evaluating the evidence.
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| cross-cultural studies | Studies that compare a culture with one or more other cultures. Such studies provide information about the degree to which adolescent development is similar, or universal, across cultures or about the degree to which it is culture-specific.
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| cross-sectional research | A research strategy in which individuals of different ages are compared at one time.
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| crowds | A larger group structure than cliques. Adolescents are usually members of a crowd based on reputation and may or may not spend much time together.
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| culture | The behavior, patterns, beliefs, and all other products of a particular group of people that are passed on from generation to generation.
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| culture-fair tests | Tests of intelligence that are intended to be free of cultural bias.
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| date, or acquaintance, rape | Coercive sexual activity directed at someone whom the perpetrator knows.
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| dating scripts | The cognitive models that adolescents and adults use to guide and evaluate dating interactions.
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| deductive reasoning | Reasoning from the general to the specific.
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| dependent variable | The factor that is measured in experimental research.
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| depressants | Drugs that slow down the central nervous system, bodily functions, and behavior.
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| descriptive research | Has the purpose of observing and recording behavior.
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| development | The pattern of change that begins at conception and continues through the life span. Most development involves growth, although it also includes decay (as in death and dying).
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| developmental career choice theory | Ginzberg's theory that children and adolescents go through three career choice stages: fantasy, tentative, and realistic.
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| developmental construction views | Views sharing the belief that as individuals grow up, they acquire modes of relating to others. There are two main variations of this view. One emphasizes continuity and stability in relationships throughout the life span; the other emphasizes discontinuity and changes in relationships throughout the life span.
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| developmental psychopathology | The area of psychology that focuses on describing and exploring the developmental pathways of problems.
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| difficult child | This child reacts negatively to many situations and is slow to accept new experiences.
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| direct instruction approach | A teachercentered approach characterized by teacher direction and control, mastery of academic skills, high expectations for students' progress, and maximum time spent on learning tasks.
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| discontinuity view | A developmental view that emphasizes change and growth in relationships over time.
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| dismissing/avoidant attachment | An insecure attachment category in which individuals de-emphasize the importance of attachment. This category is associated with consistent experiences of rejection of attachment needs by caregivers.
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| divergent thinking | A pattern of thinking in which individuals produce many answers to the same question; more characteristic of creativity than convergent thinking; coined by Guilford.
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| DNA | A complex molecule that contains genetic information.
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| early adolescence | The developmental period that corresponds roughly to the middle school or junior high school years and includes most pubertal change.
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| early adulthood | The developmental period beginning in the late teens or early twenties and lasting into the thirties.
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| early childhood | The developmental period extending from the end of infancy to about 5 or 6 years of age; sometimes called the preschool years.
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| early-later experience issue | This issue focuses on the degree to which early experiences (especially early in childhood) or later experiences are the key determinants of development.
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| easy child | This child is generally in a positive mood, quickly establishes regular routines, and adapts easily to new experiences.
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| eclectic theoretical orientation | An orientation that does not follow any one theoretical approach, but rather, selects from each theory whatever is considered the best in it.
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| ecological, contextual theory | Bronfenbrenner's environmental systems theory that focuses on five environmental systems: microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, and chronosystem.
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| ego ideal | The component of the superego that involves ideal standards approved by parents.
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| e-mail | Electronic mail, a valuable way the Internet can be used. Messages can be sent to and received by individuals as well as large numbers of people.
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| emerging adulthood | Occurring from approximately 18 to 25 years of age, this transitional period between adolescence and adulthood is characterized by experimentation and exploration.
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| emotion | Feeling or affect that occurs when a person is in a state or an interaction that is important to him or her, especially his or her well-being.
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| emotional autonomy | The capacity to relinquish childlike dependence on parents.
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| emotional intelligence | The ability to perceive and express emotion accurately and adaptively, to understand emotion and emotional knowledge, to use feelings to facilitate thought, and to manage emotions in oneself and others.
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| emotion-focused coping | Lazarus' term for responding to stress in an emotional manner, especially by using defense mechanisms.
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| empathy | Reacting to another's feelings with an emotional response that is similar to the other's response.
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| epigenetic view | Emphasizes that development is the result of an ongoing bidirectional interchange between heredity and environment.
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| equilibration | A mechanism in Piaget's theory that explains how children or adolescents shift from one state of thought to the next. The shift occurs as they experience cognitive conflict or a disequilibrium in trying to understand the world. Eventually, the child or adolescent resolves the conflict and reaches a balance, or equilibrium.
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| Erikson's theory | Includes eight stages of human development. Each stage consists of a unique developmental task that confronts individuals with a crisis that must be faced.
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| estrogens | The main class of female sex hormones.
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| ethnic gloss | Using an ethnic label such as African American or Latino in a superficial way that portrays an ethnic group as being more homogeneous than it really is.
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| ethnic identity | An enduring, basic aspect of the self that includes a sense of membership in an ethnic group and the attitudes and feelings related to that membership.
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| ethnicity | A dimension of culture based on cultural heritage, nationality, race, religion, and language.
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| ethnocentrism | A tendency to favor one's own group over other groups.
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| evocative genotype-environment correlations | Correlations that occur because an adolescent's genetically shaped characteristics elicit certain types of physical and social environments.
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| evolutionary psychology | An approach that emphasizes the importance of adaptation, reproduction, and "survival of the fittest" in explaining behavior.
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| experience sampling method (ESM) | Involves providing participants with electronic pagers and then beeping them at random times, at which time they are asked to report on various aspects of their lives.
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| experimental research | Research that involves an experiment, a carefully regulated procedure in which one or more of the factors believed to influence the behavior being studied are manipulated while all other factors are held constant.
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| externalizing problems | Occur when individuals turn problems outward. An example is juvenile delinquency.
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| extrinsic motivation | External motivational factors such as rewards and punishments.
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| female athlete triad | A combination of disordered eating, amenorrhea, and osteoporosis that may develop in female athletes during adolescence.
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| feminization of poverty | The fact that far more women than men live in poverty. Women's low income, divorce, and the resolution of divorce cases by the judicial system, which leaves women with less money than they and their children need to adequately function, are the likely causes.
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| flow | Csikszentmihalyi's concept of optimal life experiences, which he believes occur most often when people develop a sense of mastery and are absorbed in a state of concentration when they're engaged in an activity.
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| forgiveness | This is an aspect of prosocial behavior that occurs when an injured person releases the injurer from possible behavioral retaliation.
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| formal operational stage | Piaget's fourth and final stage of cognitive development, which he believed emerges at 11 to 15 years of age. It is characterized by abstract, idealistic, and logical thought.
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| friends | A subset of peers who engage in mutual companionship, support, and intimacy.
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| gender | The sociocultural and psychological dimensions of being male or female.
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| gender intensification hypothesis | This hypothesis states that psychological and behavioral differences between boys and girls become greater during early adolescence because of increased socialization pressure to conform to masculine and feminine gender roles.
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| gender role | A set of expectations that prescribes how females and males should think, act, and feel.
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| gender-role transcendence | The belief that, when an individual's competence is at issue, it should be conceptualized not on the basis of masculinity, femininity, or androgyny but, rather, on a person basis.
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| gender schema | A cognitive structure that organizes the world in terms of male and female.
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| gender schema theory | According to this theory, an individual's attention and behavior are guided by an internal motivation to conform to gender-based sociocultural standards and stereotypes.
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| gender stereotypes | Broad categories that reflect our impressions and beliefs about females and males.
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| general adaptation syndrome (GAS) | Selye's term for the common effects on the body when stressors persist that involve three stages: alarm, resistance, and exhaustion.
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| generational inequity | The unfair treatment of younger members of an aging society in which older adults pile up advantages by receiving inequitably large allocations of resources, such as Social Security and Medicare.
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| genes | The units of hereditary information, which are short segments composed of DNA.
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| genital herpes | A sexually transmitted infection caused by a large family of viruses of different strains. These strains produce other, non-sexually transmitted diseases such as chicken pox and mononucleosis.
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| genital warts | Caused by the human papillomavirus, genital warts are very contagious and are the most common STI in the United States.
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| genotype | A person's genetic heritage; the actual genetic material.
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| gonorrhea | Reported to be one of the most common STIs in the United States, this sexually transmitted infection is caused by a bacterium called Neisseria gonorrhoeae, which thrives in the moist mucous membranes lining the mouth, throat, vagina, cervix, urethra, and anal tract. This disease is commonly called the "drip" or the "clap."
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| goodness of fit | The match between an individual's temperament style and the environmental demands the individual must cope with.
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| hallucinogens | Also called psychedelic (mindaltering) drugs, these drugs alter an individual's perceptual experiences and produce hallucinations.
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| helpless orientation | An outlook in which individuals focus on their personal inadequacies, often attribute their difficulty to a lack of ability, and display negative affect (including boredom and anxiety). This orientation undermines performance.
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| heritability | The fraction of the variance in a population that is attributed to genetics.
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| heteronomous morality | The first stage of moral development in Piaget's theory, occurring at 4 to 7 years of age. Justice and rules are conceived of as unchangeable properties of the world, removed from the control of people.
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| hidden curriculum | The pervasive moral atmosphere that characterizes schools.
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| hormones | Powerful chemicals secreted by the endocrine glands and carried through the body by the bloodstream.
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| hostile environment sexual harassment | Sexual harassment in which students are subjected to unwelcome sexual conduct that is so severe, persistent, or pervasive that it limits the students' ability to benefit from their education.
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| hypotheses | Specific assumptions and predictions that can be tested to determine their accuracy.
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| hypothetical-deductive reasoning | Piaget's term for adolescents' ability, in the formal operational stage, to develop hypotheses, or best guesses, about ways to solve problems; they then systematically deduce, or conclude, the best path to follow in solving the problem.
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| identity achievement | Marcia's term for an adolescent who has undergone a crisis and made a commitment.
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| identity diffusion | Marcia's term for the state adolescents are in when they have not yet experienced a crisis or made any commitments.
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| identity foreclosure | Marcia's term for the state adolescents are in when they have made a commitment but have not experienced a crisis.
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| identity moratorium | Marcia's term for the state of adolescents who are in the midst of a crisis, but who have not made a clear commitment to an identity.
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| identity versus identity confusion | Erikson's fifth developmental stage, which occurs during adolescence. At this time, individuals are faced with deciding on who they are, what they are all about, and where they are going in life.
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| immanent justice | Piaget's concept that if a rule is broken, punishment will be meted out immediately.
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| inclusion | Educating a child or adolescent with special education needs full-time in a general school program.
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| independent variable | The factor that is manipulated in experimental research.
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| index offenses | Whether they are committed by juveniles or adults, these are criminal acts, such as robbery, rape, and homicide.
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| individuality | An important element in adolescent identity development. It consists of two dimensions: self-assertion, the ability to have and communicate a point of view; and separateness, the use of communication patterns to express how one is different from others.
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| Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) | This spells out broad mandates for services to all children and adolescents with disabilities. These include evaluation and eligibility determination, appropriate education and the individualized education program (IEP), and a least restrictive environment.
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| induction | A discipline technique in which a parent uses reason and explanation of the consequences for others of a child's actions.
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| inductive reasoning | Reasoning from the specific to the general, that is, drawing conclusions about all members of a category based on observing only some of its members.
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| indulgent parenting | A style in which parents are highly involved with their adolescents but place few demands or controls on them. This is associated with adolescents' social incompetence, especially a lack of self-control.
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| infancy | The developmental period that extends from birth to 18 or 24 months.
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| information-processing theory | Emphasizes that individuals manipulate information, monitor it, and strategize about it. Central to this approach are the processes of memory and thinking.
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| insecure attachment | In this attachment pattern, infants either avoid the caregiver or show considerable resistance or ambivalence toward the caregiver. This pattern is theorized to be related to difficulties in relationships and problems in later development.
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| intelligence | The ability to solve problems and to adapt to and learn from everyday experiences; not everyone agrees on what constitutes intelligence.
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| intelligent quotient (IQ) | A person's tested mental age divided by chronological age, multiplied by 100.
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| internalization | The developmental change from behavior that is externally controlled to behavior that is controlled by internal standards and principles.
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| internalizing problems | Occur when individuals turn problems inward. Examples include anxiety and depression.
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| Internet | The core of computer-mediated communication. The Internet system is worldwide and connects thousands of computer networks, providing an incredible array of information adolescents can access.
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| intimacy in friendship | In most research, this is defined narrowly as self-disclosure or sharing of private thoughts.
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| intimacy versus isolation | Erikson's sixth developmental stage, which individuals experience during the early adulthood years. At this time, individuals face the developmental task of forming intimate relationships with others.
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| intrinsic motivation | Internal motivational factors such as self-determination, curiosity, challenge, and effort.
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| inventionist view | The view that adolescence is a sociohistorical creation. Especially important in this view are the sociohistorical circumstances at the beginning of the twentieth century, a time when legislation was enacted that ensured the dependency of youth and made their move into the economic sphere more manageable.
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| jigsaw classroom | A strategy in which students from different cultural backgrounds are placed in a cooperative group in which, together, they have to construct different parts of a project to reach a common goal.
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| justice perspective | A moral perspective that focuses on the rights of the individual; individuals independently make moral decisions.
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| juvenile delinquency | A broad range of child and adolescent behaviors, including socially unacceptable behavior, status offenses, and criminal acts.
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| laboratory | A controlled setting in which many of the complex factors of the "real world" are removed.
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| late adolescence | Approximately the latter half of the second decade of life. Career interests, dating, and identity exploration are often more pronounced in late adolescence than in early adolescence.
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| late adulthood | The developmental period that lasts from about 60 to 70 years of age until death.
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| learning disability | Individuals with a learning disability are of normal intelligence or above, have difficulties in at least one academic area and usually several, and their difficulties cannot be attributed to any other diagnosed problem or disorder, such as mental retardation.
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| least restrictive environment | A setting that is as similar as possible to the one in which the children or adolescents without a disability are educated; under the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, the child or adolescent must be educated in this setting.
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| longitudinal research | A research strategy in which the same individuals are studied over a period of time, usually several years or more.
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| love withdrawal | A discipline technique in which a parent removes attention or love from a child.
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| major depressive disorder | The diagnosis when an individual experiences a major depressive episode and depressed characteristics, such as lethargy and depression, for two weeks or longer and daily functioning becomes impaired.
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| mastery orientation | An outlook in which individuals focus on the task rather than on their ability, have positive affect, and generate solution-oriented strategies that improve their performance.
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| menarche | A girl's first menstrual period.
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| mental age (MA) | An individual's level of mental development relative to others; a concept developed by Binet.
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| metacognition | Cognition about cognition, or "knowing about knowing."
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| middle adulthood | The developmental period that is entered at about 35 to 45 years and exited at about 55 to 65 years of age.
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| middle and late childhood | The developmental period extending from about 6 to about 10 or 11 years of age; sometimes called the elementary school years.
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| moral development | Thoughts, feelings, and behaviors regarding standards of right and wrong.
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| moral exemplar approach | Emphasizes the development of personality, character, and virtue in terms of moral excellence.
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| moral identity | An aspect of personality that is present when individuals have moral notions and commitments that are central to their lives.
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| multicultural model | This model promotes a pluralistic approach to understanding two or more cultures. It argues that people can maintain their distinctive identities while working with others from different cultures to meet common national or economic needs.
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| naturalistic observation | Observing behavior in real-world settings.
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| nature-nurture issue | Involves the debate about whether development is primarily influenced by nature or nurture. Nature refers to an organism's biological inheritance, nurture to its environmental experiences.
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| neglected children | Children who are infrequently nominated as a best friend but are not disliked by their peers.
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| neglectful parenting | A style in which the parent is very uninvolved in the adolescent's life. It is associated with adolescents' social incompetence, especially a lack of self-control.
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| neo-Piagetians | Theorists who argue that Piaget got some things right but that his theory needs considerable revision. In their revision, they give more emphasis to information processing that involves attention, memory, and strategies; they also seek to provide more precise explanations of cognitive changes.
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| neurons | Nerve cells, which are the nervous system's basic units.
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| nonshared environmental influences | The adolescent's own unique experiences, both within a family and outside the family, that are not shared by another sibling.
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| normal distribution | A symmetrical distribution of values or scores, with a majority of scores falling in the middle of the possible range of scores and few scores appearing toward the extremes of the range; a distribution that yields what is called a "bell-shaped curve."
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| norms | Rules that apply to all members of a group.
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| passive genotype-environment correlations | Correlations that occur because biological parents, who are genetically related to the child, provide a rearing environment for the child.
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| peers | Children or adolescents who are about the same age or maturity level.
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| performance orientation | An outlook in which individuals are concerned with performance outcome rather than performance process. For performance-oriented students, winning is what matters.
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| permissive strategy of classroom management | This strategy offers students considerable autonomy but provides them with little support for developing learning skills or managing their behavior.
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| personality type theory | Holland believes that an effort should be made to match an individual's career choice with his or her personality.
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| phenotype | The way an individual's genotype is expressed in observed and measurable characteristics.
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| physical dependence | Physical need for a drug that is accompanied by unpleasant withdrawal symptoms when the drug is discontinued.
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| Piaget's theory | States that children actively construct their understanding of the world and go through four stages of cognitive development.
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| popular children | Children who are frequently nominated as a best friend and are rarely disliked by their peers.
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| possible self | What individuals might become, what they would like to become, and what they are afraid of becoming.
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| postconventional reasoning | The highest level in Kohlberg's theory of moral development. Morality is completely internalized.
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| postformal thought | Thought that is reflective, relativistic, and provisional; realistic; and open to emotions and subjective.
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| power assertion | A discipline technique in which a parent attempts to gain control over a child or a child's resources.
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| preconventional reasoning | The lowest level in Kohlberg's theory of moral development. The individual shows no internalization of moral values—moral reasoning is controlled by external rewards and punishment.
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| prejudice | An unjustified negative attitude toward an individual because of her or his membership in a group.
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| prenatal period | The time from conception to birth.
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| preoccupied/ambivalent attachment | An insecure attachment category in which adolescents are hypertuned to attachment experiences. This is thought to mainly occur because parents are inconsistently available to the adolescents.
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| preoperational stage | Piaget's second stage, which lasts approximately from 2 to 7 years of age. In this stage, children begin to represent their world with words, images, and drawings.
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| problem-focused coping | The strategy of squarely facing one's troubles and trying to solve them.
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| psychoanalytic theories | Describe development as primarily unconscious and heavily colored by emotion. Behavior is merely a surface characteristic and the symbolic workings of the mind have to be analyzed to understand behavior. Early experiences with parents are emphasized.
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| psychological dependence | Strong desire and craving to repeat the use of a drug for various emotional reasons, such as a feeling of wellbeing and reduction of distress.
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| psychometric/intelligence view | A view that emphasizes the importance of individual differences in intelligence; many advocates of this view also argue that intelligence should be assessed with intelligence tests.
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| psychosocial moratorium | Erikson's term for the gap between childhood security and adult autonomy that adolescents experience as part of their identity exploration.
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| puberty | A period of rapid physical maturation involving hormonal and bodily changes that take place primarily in early adolescence.
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| Public Law 94-142 | The Education for All Handicapped Children Act, which requires all students with disabilities to be given a free, appropriate education and provides the funding to help implement this education.
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| quid pro quo sexual harassment | Sexual harassment in which a school employee threatens to base an educational decision (such as a grade) on a student's submission to unwelcome conduct.
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| rape | Forcible sexual intercourse with a person who does not give consent.
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| rapport talk | The language of conversation, establishing connections, and negotiating relationships.
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| reciprocal socialization | The process by which children and adolescents socialize parents, just as parents socialize them.
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| rejected children | Children who are infrequently nominated as a best friend and are actively disliked by their peers.
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| report talk | Talk that gives information; public speaking is an example.
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| rites of passage | Ceremonies or rituals that mark an individual's transition from one status to another, such as the entry into adulthood.
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| roles | Certain positions in a group that are governed by rules and expectations. Roles define how adolescents should behave in those positions.
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| romantic love | Also called passionate love or eros, this love has strong sexual and infatuation components, and it often predominates in the early part of a love relationship.
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| schema | A concept or framework that exists in the individual's mind to organize and interpret information.
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| schema | A mental concept or framework that is useful in organizing and interpreting information.
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| secure attachment | In this attachment pattern, infants use their primary caregiver, usually the mother, as a secure base from which to explore the environment. Secure attachment is theorized to be an important foundation for psychological development later in childhood, adolescence, and adulthood.
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| self-concept | Domain-specific evaluations of the self.
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| self-efficacy | The belief that one can master a situation and produce positive outcomes.
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| self-esteem | The global evaluative dimension of the self; also referred to as self-worth or self-image.
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| self-handicapping | Involves efforts by individuals to avoid failure.
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| self-regulatory learning | The self-generation and self-monitoring of one's thoughts, feelings, and behaviors in order to reach a goal.
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| self-understanding | The adolescent's cognitive representation of the self; the substance and content of the adolescent's selfconceptions. 141 sensorimotor stage Piaget's first stage of development, lasting from birth to about 2 years of age. In this stage, infants construct an understanding of the world by coordinating sensory experiences with physical, motoric actions.
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| service learning | A form of education that promotes social responsibility and service to the community.
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| sexism | Prejudice and discrimination against an individual because of her or his sex.
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| sexual script | A stereotyped pattern of role prescriptions for how individuals should sexually behave. Females and males have been socialized to follow different sexual scripts.
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| sexually transmitted infections (STIs) | Diseases that are contracted primarily through sexual contact. This contact is not limited to vaginal intercourse but includes oral-genital contact and anal-genital contact as well.
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| shared environmental influences | Siblings' common experiences such as their parents' personalities and intellectual orientation, the family's social class, and the neighborhood in which they live.
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| slow-to-warm-up child | This child has a low activity level, is somewhat negative, and displays a low intensity of mood.
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| social cognitive theory | The view of psychologists who emphasize behavior, environment, and cognition as the key factors in development.
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| social cognitive theory of gender | This theory emphasizes that children's and adolescents' gender development occurs through observation and imitation of gender behavior, and through rewards and punishments they experience for gender-appropriate and -inappropriate behavior.
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| social cognitive theory of moral development | The theory that distinguishes between moral competence (the ability to produce moral behaviors) and moral performance (performing those behaviors in specific situations).
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| social constructivist approach | Emphasizes the social contexts of learning and the construction of knowledge through social interaction.
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| social constructivist approaches | Approaches that focus on collaboration with others to produce knowledge and understanding; an example is Vygotsky's theory.
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| social conventional reasoning | Thoughts about social consensus and convention, as opposed to moral reasoning that stresses ethical issues.
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| social policy | A national government's course of action designed to influence the welfare of its citizens.
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| social role theory | States that gender differences result from the contrasting roles of females and males with females having less power and status than males have and they control fewer resources.
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| socioeconomic status (SES) | A grouping of people with similar occupational, educational, and economic characteristics.
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| socioemotional processes | Changes in an individual's relationships with other people, emotions, personality, and social contexts.
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| spermarche | A boy's first ejaculation of semen.
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| standardized test | A test with uniform procedures for administration and scoring. Many standardized tests allow a person's performance to be compared with the performance of other individuals.
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| status offenses | Performed by youths under a specified age, these are juvenile offenses that are not as serious as index offenses. These offenses may include such acts as drinking under age, truancy, and sexual promiscuity.
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| stereotype | A generalization that reflects our impressions and beliefs about a broad group of people. All stereotypes refer to an image of what the typical member of a particular group is like.
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| stimulants | Drugs that increase the activity of the central nervous system.
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| storm-and-stress view | G. Stanley Hall's concept that adolescence is a turbulent time charged with conflict and mood swings.
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| stress | The response of individuals to stressors, which are circumstances and events that threaten and tax their coping abilities.
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| syphilis | A sexually transmitted infection caused by the bacterium Treponema pallidum, a spirochete.
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| temperament | An individual's behavioral style and characteristic way of responding.
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| theory | An interrelated, coherent set of ideas that helps to explain observations and make predictions.
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| tolerance | The condition in which a greater amount of a drug is needed to produce the same effect as a smaller amount used to produce the effect.
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| top-dog phenomenon | The circumstance of moving from the top position (in elementary school, the oldest, biggest, and most powerful students) to the lowest position (in middle or junior high school, the youngest, smallest, and least powerful).
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| triarchic theory of intelligence | Sternberg's view that intelligence comes in three main forms: analytical, creative, and practical.
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| twin study | A study in which the behavioral similarity of identical twins is compared with the behavioral similarity of fraternal twins.
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| unresolved/disorganized attachment | An insecure category in which the adolescent has an unusually high level of fear and is disoriented. This can result from such traumatic experiences as a parent's death or abuse by parents.
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| values | Beliefs and attitudes about the way things should be.
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| values clarification | An educational approach that focuses on helping people clarify what is important to them, what is worth working for, and what purpose their lives are to serve. Students are encouraged to define their own values and understand others' values.
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| Vygotsky's theory | A sociocultural cognitive theory that emphasizes how culture and social interaction guide cognitive development.
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| youth | Kenniston's term for the transitional period between adolescence and adulthood, which is a time of economic and personal temporariness.
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| zone of proximal development (ZPD) | Vygotsky's concept that refers to the range of tasks that are too difficult for an individual to master alone, but that can be mastered with the guidance or assistance of adults or moreskilled peers.
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