Guidepost 1: What are emotions, when do they develop, and how do babies show them?

• The repertoire of emotions seems to be universal, but there are individual and cultural variations in their expression.
• Emotional development is an orderly process, in which complex emotions unfold from simpler ones.
• Emotions, by guiding and regulating behavior, serve protective needs.
• The emergence and expression of emotions seem to be tied to brain maturation and cognitive development. Complex emotions seem to develop from earlier, simpler ones.
• Crying, smiling, and laughing are early signs of emotion.
• Self-conscious and evaluative emotions arise after the development of self-awareness.
• Separate but interacting regions of the brain may be responsible for various emotional states.

Guidepost 2: How do infants show temperamental differences, and how enduring are those differences?

• Many children seem to fall into three categories of temperament: "easy," "difficult," and "slow-to-warm-up." Temperamental patterns appear to be largely inborn and to have a biological basis. They are generally stable but can be modified by experience.
• Cross-cultural differences in temperament may reflect childraising practices.

Guidepost 3: What roles do mothers and fathers play in early personality development?

• Childraising practices and caregiving roles vary around the world.
• Infants have strong needs for maternal closeness and warmth as well as physical care.
• In most cultures, mothers do more infant care than fathers. Mothers and fathers in some cultures have different styles of play with babies.
• Although significant gender differences typically do not appear until after infancy, parents begin gender-typing boys and girls almost from birth.

Guidepost 4: How do infants gain trust in their world and form attachments?

• According to Erikson, infants in the first 18 months experience the first stage in personality development, basic trust versus basic mistrust. Sensitive, responsive, consistent caregiving is the key to successful resolution of this crisis.
• Research based on the Strange Situation has found four patterns of attachment: secure, avoidant, ambivalent (resistant), and disorganized-disoriented.
• Newer instruments measure attachment in natural settings and in cross-cultural research.
• Attachment patterns may depend on a baby's temperament, as well as on the quality of parenting, and may have long-term implications for development. A parent's memories of childhood attachment can influence his or her own child's attachment.

Guidepost 5: How do infants and caregivers "read" each other's nonverbal signals, and what happens when communication breaks down?

• Mutual regulation enables babies to play an active part in regulating their emotional states.
• A mother's depression, especially if severe or chronic, may have serious consequences for her infant's development.
• Separation anxiety and stranger anxiety may arise during the second half of the first year and appear to be related to temperament and circumstances.
• There is evidence that 1-year-olds show social referencing.

Guidepost 6: When and how do the self and self-concept arise?

• William James identified two "selves": the I-self and the Me-self, or self-concept.
• The I-self is believed to develop early in infancy, in the context of emotional experiences involving the relationship with a caregiver.
• The Me-self is believed to emerge between 15 and 30 months in conjunction with the development of self-awareness.

Guidepost 7: How do toddlers develop autonomy and standards for socially acceptable behavior?

• Erikson's second stage concerns autonomy versus shame and doubt. Negativism is a normal manifestation of the shift from external control to self-control.
• Socialization, which rests on internalization of societally approved standards, begins with the development of self-regulation.
• Parenting practices, a child's temperament, the quality of the parent-child relationship, and cultural and class standards may be factors in the ease and success of socialization.
• Toddlers who show committed compliance tend to internalize adult rules more readily than those who show situational compliance.

Guidepost 8: How do infants and toddlers interact with siblings and other children?

• Siblings influence each other's socialization, partly through practice in conflict resolution.
• Even during the first few months, infants show interest in other babies. This interest increases during the second half of the first year.
• Sociability may depend on temperament and culture.

Guidepost 9: How do parental employment and early child care affect infants' and toddlers' development?

• Mothers' workforce participation during a child's first three years seems to have little impact on development.
• Substitute child care varies widely in type and quality. The most important element in quality of care is the caregiver.
• Although quality, quantity, stability, and type of care have some influence on psychosocial and cognitive development, the influence of family characteristics seems greater.
• Low-income children, especially, benefit from good child care.