Glossary (See related pages) acceleration   Approach to educating the gifted that moves them through the curriculum at an unusually rapid pace. accommodation   Piaget's term for changes in a cognitive structure to include new information. achieving stage   Second of Schaie's seven cognitive stages, in which young adults use knowledge to gain competence and independence. acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS)   Viral disease that undermines effective functioning of the immune system. acquisitive stage   First of Schaie's seven cognitive stages, in which children and adolescents learn information and skills largely for their own sake or as preparation for participation in society. active engagement   Personal involvement in schooling, work, family life, or other activity. active euthanasia   Deliberate action taken to shorten the life of a terminally ill person in order to end suffering or to allow death with dignity; also called mercy killing. activities of daily living (ADLs)   Essential activities that support survival, such as eating, dressing, bathing, and getting around the house. activity theory   Theory of aging, proposed by Neugarten and others, which holds that in order to age successfully a person must remain as active as possible. acute medical conditions   Illnesses that last a short time. adaptation   Piaget's term for adjustment to new information about the environment. adolescence   Developmental transition between childhood and adulthood entailing major physical, cognitive, and psychosocial changes. adolescent growth spurt   Sharp increase in height and weight that precedes sexual maturity. adolescent rebellion   Pattern of emotional turmoil, characteristic of a minority of adolescents, which may involve conflict with family, alienation from adult society, reckless behavior, and rejection of adult values. advance directive (living will)   Document specifying the type of care wanted by the maker in the event of an incapacitating or terminal illness. affordances   In the Gibsons' ecological theory of perception, the fit between a person's physical attributes and capabilities and characteristics of the environment. age-differentiated   Describing a life structure in which primary roles—learning, working, and leisure—are based on age; typical in industrialized societies. Compare age-integrated. age-integrated   Describing a life structure in which primary roles—learning, working, and leisure—are open to adults of all ages and can be interspersed throughout the life span. Compare age-differentiated. ageism   Prejudice or discrimination against a person (most commonly an older person) based on age. age-related macular degeneration   Condition in which the center of the retina gradually loses its ability to discern fine details; leading cause of irreversible visual impairment in older adults. alcoholism   Chronic disease involving dependence on use of alcohol, causing interference with normal functioning and fulfillment of obligations. alleles   Two or more alternative forms of a gene that can occupy the same position on paired chromosomes and affect the same trait. altruism   Behavior intended to help others out of inner concern and without expectation of external reward; may involve selfdenial or self-sacrifice. Alzheimer's disease   Progressive, irreversible, degenerative brain disorder characterized by cognitive deterioration and loss of control of bodily functions, leading to death. ambiguous loss   A loss that is not clearly defined or does not bring closure. ambivalent (resistant) attachment   Pattern in which an infant becomes anxious before the primary caregiver leaves, is extremely upset during his or her absence, and both seeks and resists contact on his or her return. amyloid plaque   Waxy chunks of insoluble tissue found in brains of persons with Alzheimer's disease. animism   Tendency to attribute life to objects that are not alive. anorexia nervosa   Eating disorder characterized by self-starvation. anoxia   Lack of oxygen, which may cause brain damage. Apgar scale   Standard measurement of a newborn's condition; it assesses appearance, pulse, grimace, activity, and respiration. art therapy   Therapeutic approach that allows a person to express troubled feelings without words, using a variety of art materials and media. assimilation   Piaget's term for incorporation of new information into an existing cognitive structure. assisted suicide   Suicide in which a physician or someone else helps a person take his or her own life. asthma   A chronic respiratory disease characterized by sudden attacks of coughing, wheezing, and difficulty in breathing. attachment   Reciprocal, enduring tie between two people, especially between infant and caregiver, each of whom contributes to the quality of the relationship. attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)   Syndrome characterized by persistent inattention and distractibility, impulsivity, low tolerance for frustration, and inappropriate overactivity. authoritarian   In Baumrind's terminology, parenting style emphasizing control and obedience. authoritative   In Baumrind's terminology, parenting style blending respect for a child's individuality with an effort to instill social values. autism   Pervasive developmental disorder of the brain, characterized by lack of normal social interaction, impaired communication and imagination, and a highly restricted range of activities and interests. autobiographical memory   Memory of specific events in one's own life. autoimmunity   Tendency of an aging body to mistake its own tissues for foreign invaders and to attack and destroy them. autonomy versus shame and doubt   Erikson's second stage in psychosocial development, in which children achieve a balance between self-determination and control by others. autosomes   In humans, the 22 pairs of chromosomes not related to sexual differentiation. avoidant attachment   Pattern in which an infant rarely cries when separated from the primary caregiver and avoids contact upon his or her return. balanced investment   Pattern of retirement activity allocated among family, work, and leisure. basal metabolism   Use of energy to maintain vital functions. basic trust versus basic mistrust   Erikson's first crisis in psychosocial development, in which infants develop a sense of the reliability of people and objects. Bayley Scales of Infant Development   Standardized test of infants' development. behavior therapy   Therapeutic approach using principles of learning theory to encourage desired behaviors or eliminate undesired ones; also called behavior modification. behavioral genetics   Quantitative study of relative hereditary and environmental influences on behavior. behaviorism   Learning theory that emphasizes the predictable role of environment in causing observable behavior. behaviorist approach   Approach to the study of cognitive development that is concerned with basic mechanics of learning. bereavement   Loss, due to death, of someone to whom one feels close and the process of adjustment to the loss. bilingual   Fluent in two languages. bilingual education   System of teaching non–English-speaking children in their native language while they learn English, and later switching to all-English instruction. bioecological theory   Bronfenbrenner's approach to understanding processes and contexts of human development. birth trauma   Injury to newborn sustained at the time of birth. body image   Descriptive and evaluative beliefs about one's appearance. brain growth spurts   Periods of rapid brain growth and development. Brazelton Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale (NBAS)   Neurological and behavioral test to measure neonate's responses to the environment. bulimia nervosa   Eating disorder in which a person regularly eats huge quantities of food and then purges the body by laxatives, induced vomiting, fasting, or excessive exercise. bullying   Aggression deliberately and persistently directed against a particular target, or victim, typically one who is weak, vulnerable, and defenseless. burnout   Syndrome of emotional exhaustion and a sense that one can no longer accomplish anything on the job. canalization   Limitation on variance of expression of certain inherited characteristics. caregiver burnout   Condition of physical, mental, and emotional exhaustion affecting adults who provide continuous care for sick or aged persons. case study   Study of a single subject, such as an individual or family. cataracts   Cloudy or opaque areas in the lens of the eye, which cause blurred vision. cell death   In brain development, the normal elimination of excess brain cells to achieve more efficient functioning. central executive   In Baddeley's model, element of working memory that controls the processing of information. central nervous system   Brain and spinal cord. centration   In Piaget's theory, tendency of preoperational children to focus on one aspect of a situation and neglect others. cephalocaudal principle   Principle that development proceeds in a head-to-tail direction; that is, that upper parts of the body develop before lower parts of the trunk. cesarean delivery   Delivery of a baby by surgical removal from the uterus. child-directed speech (CDS)   Form of speech often used in talking to babies or toddlers; includes slow, simplified speech, a high-pitched tone, exaggerated vowel sounds, short words and sentences, and much repetition; also called parentese. childhood depression   Mood disorder characterized by such symptoms as a prolonged sense of friendlessness, inability to have fun or concentrate, fatigue, extreme activity or apathy, feelings of worthlessness, weight change, physical complaints, and thoughts of death or suicide. chromosomes   Coils of DNA that consist of genes. chronic medical conditions   Illnesses or impairments that persist for at least 3 months. chronosystem   Bronfenbrenner's term for effects of time on other developmental systems. circular reactions   Piaget's term for processes by which an infant learns to reproduce desired occurrences originally discovered by chance. class inclusion   Understanding of the relationship between a whole and its parts. classical conditioning   Learning based on association of a stimulus that does not ordinarily elicit a particular response with another stimulus that does elicit the response. code mixing   Use of elements of two languages, sometimes in the same utterance, by young children in households where both languages are spoken. code switching   Changing one's speech to match the situation, as in people who are bilingual. cognitive development   Pattern of change in mental abilities, such as learning, attention, memory, language, thinking, reasoning, and creativity. cognitive neuroscience approach   Approach to the study of cognitive development that links brain processes with cognitive ones. cognitive neuroscience   Study of links between neural processes and cognitive abilities. cognitive perspective   View that thought processes are central to cognitive development. cognitive reserve   Hypothesized fund of energy that may enable a deteriorating brain to continue to function normally. cognitive-appraisal model   Model of coping, proposed by Lazarus and Folkman, which holds that, on the basis of continuous appraisal of their relationship with the environment, people choose appropriate coping strategies to deal with situations that tax their normal resources. cognitive-stage theory   Piaget's theory that children's cognitive development advances in a series of four stages involving qualitatively distinct types of mental operations. cohabitation   Status of an unmarried couple who live together and maintain a sexual relationship. cohort   A group of people born at about the same time. commitment   Marcia's term for personal investment in an occupation or system of beliefs. committed compliance   Kochanska's term for wholehearted obedience of a parent's orders without reminders or lapses. componential element   Sternberg's term for the analytic aspect of intelligence. conceptual knowledge   Acquired interpretive understandings stored in long-term memory. concordant   Term describing tendency of twins to share the same trait or disorder. concrete operations   Third stage of Piagetian cognitive development (approximately from ages 7 to 12), during which children develop logical but not abstract thinking. conduct disorder (CD)   Repetitive, persistent pattern of aggressive, antisocial behavior violating societal norms or the rights of others. conscience   Internal standards of behavior, which usually control one's conduct and produce emotional discomfort when violated. conservation   Piaget's term for awareness that two objects that are equal according to a certain measure remain equal in the face of perceptual alteration so long as nothing has been added to or taken away from either object. constructive play   Play involving use of objects or materials to make something. contextual element   Sternberg's term for the practical aspect of intelligence. contextual perspective   View of human development that sees the individual as inseparable from the social context. continuity theory   Theory of aging, described by Atchley, which holds that in order to age successfully people must maintain a balance of continuity and change in both the internal and external structures of their lives. control group   In an experiment, a group of people, similar to those in the experimental group, who do not receive the treatment under study. conventional morality (or morality of conventional role conformity)   Second level in Kohlberg's theory of moral reasoning in which standards of authority figures are internalized. convergent thinking   Thinking aimed at finding the one right answer to a problem. coping   Adaptive thinking or behavior aimed at reducing or relieving stress that arises from harmful, threatening, or challenging conditions. coregulation   Transitional stage in the control of behavior in which parents exercise general supervision and children exercise moment-to-moment selfregulation. corporal punishment   Use of physical force with the intention of causing pain but not injury so as to correct or control behavior. correlational study   Research design intended to discover whether a statistical relationship between variables exists. creativity   Ability to see situations in a new way, to produce innovations, or to discern previously unidentified problems and find novel solutions. crisis   Marcia's term for period of conscious decision making related to identity formation. critical period   Specific time when a given event or its absence has the greatest impact on development. cross-modal transfer   Ability to use information gained by one sense to guide another. cross-sectional study   Study designed to assess age-related differences, in which people of different ages are assessed on one occasion. crystallized intelligence   Type of intelligence, proposed by Horn and Cattell, involving the ability to remember and use learned information; it is largely dependent on education and cultural background. cultural bias   Tendency of intelligence tests to include items calling for knowledge or skills more familiar or meaningful to some cultural groups than to others. culture   A society's or group's total way of life, including customs, traditions, beliefs, values, language, and physical products—all learned behavior passed on from parents to children. culture-fair   Describing an intelligence test that deals with experiences common to various cultures, in an attempt to avoid cultural bias. culture-free   Describing an intelligence test that, if it were possible to design, would have no culturally linked content. culture-relevant   Describing an intelligence test that would draw on and adjust for culturally related content. decenter   In Piaget's terminology, to think simultaneously about several aspects of a situation. declarative knowledge   Acquired factual knowledge stored in long-term memory. decoding   Process of phonetic analysis by which a printed word is converted to spoken form before retrieval from long-term memory. deductive reasoning   Type of logical reasoning that moves from a general premise about a class to a conclusion about a particular member or members of the class. deferred imitation   Piaget's term for reproduction of an observed behavior after the passage of time by calling up a stored symbol of it. dementia   Deterioration in cognitive and behavioral functioning due to physiological causes. Denver Developmental Screening Test   Screening test given to children 1 month to 6 years old to determine whether they are developing normally. deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)   Chemical that carries inherited instructions for the development of all cellular forms of life. dependent variable   In an experiment, the condition that may or may not change as a result of changes in the independent variable. depth perception   Ability to perceive objects and surfaces threedimensionally. developmental tasks   In normative-stage theories, typical challenges that need to be mastered for successful adaptation to each stage of life. differentiation   Process by which cells acquire specialized structure and function. "difficult" children   Children with irritable temperament, irregular biological rhythms, and intense emotional responses. discipline   Methods of molding children's character and of teaching them to exercise self-control and engage in acceptable behavior. disengagement theory   Theory of aging, proposed by Cumming and Henry, which holds that successful aging is characterized by mutual withdrawal between the older person and society. dishabituation   Increase in responsiveness after presentation of a new stimulus. disorganized-disoriented attachment   Pattern in which an infant, after separation from the primary caregiver, shows contradictory behaviors upon his or her return. divergent thinking   Thinking that produces a variety of fresh, diverse possibilities. dizygotic twins   Twins conceived by the union of two different ova (or a single ovum that has split) with two different sperm cells; also called fraternal twins. dominant inheritance   Pattern of inheritance in which, when a child receives different alleles, only the dominant one is expressed. Down syndrome   Chromosomal disorder characterized by moderate-to-severe mental retardation and by such physical signs as a downward sloping skinfold at the inner corners of the eyes. drug therapy   Administration of drugs to treat emotional or psychological disorders. dual representation hypothesis   Proposal that children under the age of 3 have difficulty grasping spatial relationships because of the need to keep more than one mental representation in mind at the same time. dual-process model   Model of cognitive functioning, proposed by Baltes, which identifies and seeks to measure two dimensions of intelligence: mechanics and pragmatics. durable power of attorney   Legal instrument that appoints an individual to make decisions in the event of another person's incapacitation. dyslexia   Developmental disorder in which reading achievement is substantially lower than predicted by IQ or age. early intervention   Systematic process of providing services to help families meet young children's developmental needs. "easy" children   Children with a generally happy temperament, regular biological rhythms, and a readiness to accept new experiences. ecological theory of perception   Theory developed by Eleanor and James Gibson, which describes developing motor and perceptual abilities as interdependent parts of a functional system that guides behavior in varying contexts. ego integrity versus despair   According to Erikson, the eighth and final stage of psychosocial development, in which people in late adulthood either achieve a sense of integrity of the self by accepting the lives they have lived, and thus accept death, or yield to despair that their lives cannot be relived. egocentrism   Piaget's term for inability to consider another person's point of view; a characteristic of young children's thought. ego-control   Self-control. ego-resiliency   Adaptability under potential sources of stress. elaboration   Mnemonic strategy of making mental associations involving items to be remembered. elder abuse   Maltreatment or neglect of dependent older persons, or violation of their personal rights. electronic fetal monitoring   Mechanical monitoring of fetal heartbeat during labor and delivery. elicited imitation   Research method in which infants or toddlers are induced to imitate a specific series of actions they have seen but not necessarily done before. embryonic stage   Second stage of gestation (2 to 8 weeks), characterized by rapid growth and development of major body systems and organs. emergent literacy   Preschoolers' development of skills, knowledge, and attitudes that underlie reading and writing. emerging adulthood   Proposed transitional period between adolescence and adulthood, usually extending from the late teens through the midtwenties. emotional intelligence   Salovey and Mayer's term for ability to understand and regulate emotions; an important component of effective, intelligent behavior. emotional maltreatment   Action or inaction that may cause behavioral, cognitive, emotional, or mental disorders. emotion-focused coping   In the cognitive- appraisal model, coping strategy directed toward managing the emotional response to a stressful situation so as to lessen its physical or psychological impact; sometimes called palliative coping. emotions   Subjective reactions to experience that are associated with physiological and behavioral changes. empathy   Ability to "put oneself in another person's place" and feel what the other person feels. empty nest   Transitional phase of parenting following the last child's leaving the parents' home. encapsulation   In Hoyer's terminology, progressive dedication of information processing and fluid thinking to specific knowledge systems, making knowledge more readily accessible. encoding   Process by which information is prepared for long-term storage and later retrieval. English-immersion   Approach to teaching English as a second language in which instruction is presented only in English. enrichment   Approach to educating the gifted, which broadens and deepens knowledge and skills through extra activities, projects, field trips, or mentoring. enuresis   Repeated urination in clothing or in bed. environment   Totality of nonhereditary, or experiential, influences on development. episodic memory   Long-term memory of specific experiences or events, linked to time and place. equilibration   Piaget's term for the tendency to seek a stable balance among cognitive elements. erectile dysfunction   Inability of a man to achieve or maintain an erect penis sufficient for satisfactory sexual performance. ethnic gloss   Overgeneralization about an ethnic or cultural group that obscures differences within the group. ethnic group   A group united by ancestry, race, religion, language, and/or national origins, which contribute to a sense of shared identity. ethnographic study   In-depth study of a culture, which uses a combination of methods including participant observation. ethology   Study of distinctive adaptive behaviors of species of animals that have evolved to increase survival of the species. evolutionary psychology   Application of Darwinian principles of natural selection and survival of the fittest to individual behavior. evolutionary/sociobiological perspective   View of human development that focuses on evolutionary and biological bases of social behavior. executive stage   Fourth of Schaie's seven cognitive stages, in which middle-aged people responsible for societal systems deal with complex relationships on several levels. exosystem   Bronfenbrenner's term for linkages between two or more settings, one of which does not contain the child. experiential element   Sternberg's term for the insightful or creative aspect of intelligence. experiment   Rigorously controlled, replicable procedure in which the researcher manipulates variables to assess the effect of one on the other. experimental group   In an experiment, the group receiving the treatment under study. explicit memory   Intentional and conscious memory, generally of facts, names, and events. extended family   Multigenerational kinship network of parents, children, and other relatives, sometimes living together in an extended-family household. external memory aids   Mnemonic strategies using something outside the person. family therapy   Psychological treatment in which a therapist sees the whole family together to analyze patterns of family functioning. family-focused lifestyle   Pattern of retirement activity that revolves around family, home, and companions. fast mapping   Process by which a child absorbs the meaning of a new word after hearing it once or twice in conversation. fertilization   Union of sperm and ovum to produce a zygote; also called conception. fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)   Combination of mental, motor, and developmental abnormalities affecting the offspring of some women who drink heavily during pregnancy. fetal stage   Final stage of gestation (from 8 weeks to birth), characterized by increased differentiation of body parts and greatly enlarged body size. filial crisis   In Marcoen's terminology, normative development of middle age, in which adults learn to balance love and duty to their parents with autonomy within a two-way relationship. filial maturity   Stage of life, proposed by Marcoen and others, in which middleaged children, as the outcome of a filial crisis, learn to accept and meet their parents' need to depend on them. fine motor skills   Physical skills that involve the small muscles and eye-hand coordination. five-factor model   Theoretical model of personality, developed and tested by Costa and McCrae, based on the "Big Five" factors underlying clusters of related traits: neuroticism, extraversion, openness to experience, conscientiousness, and agreeableness. fluid intelligence   Type of intelligence, proposed by Horn and Cattell, which is applied to novel problems and is relatively independent of educational and cultural influences. foreclosure   Identity status, described by Marcia, in which a person who has not spent time considering alternatives (that is, has not been in crisis) is committed to other people's plans for his or her life. formal operations   Piaget's final stage of cognitive development, characterized by the ability to think abstractly. free radicals   Unstable, highly reactive atoms or molecules, formed during metabolism, which can cause internal bodily damage. functional age   Measure of a person's ability to function effectively in his or her physical and social environment in comparison with others of the same chronological age. functional play   Play involving repetitive muscular movements. gateway drugs   Drugs such as alcohol, tobacco, and marijuana, the use of which tends to lead to use of more addictive drugs. gender   Significance of being male or female. gender constancy   Awareness that one will always be male or female. Also called sex-category constancy. gender crossover   Gutmann's term for reversal of gender roles after the end of active parenting. gender identity   Awareness, developed in early childhood, that one is male or female. gender roles   Behaviors, interests, attitudes, skills, and traits that a culture considers appropriate for each sex; differs for males and females. gender stereotypes   Preconceived generalizations about male or female role behavior. gender-schema theory   Theory, proposed by Bem, that children socialize themselves in their gender roles by developing a mentally organized network of information about what it means to be male or female in a particular culture. gender-typing   Socialization process by which children, at an early age, learn appropriate gender roles. generalized anxiety disorder   Anxiety not focused on any single target. generativity versus stagnation   Erikson's seventh stage of psychosocial development, in which the middle-aged adult develops a concern with establishing, guiding, and influencing the next generation or else experiences stagnation (a sense of inactivity or lifelessness). generativity   Erikson's term for concern of mature adults for establishing, guiding, and influencing the next generation. generic memory   Memory that produces scripts of familiar routines to guide behavior. genes   Small segments of DNA located in definite positions on particular chromosomes; functional units of heredity. genetic code   Sequence of bases within the DNA molecule; governs the formation of proteins that determine the structure and functions of living cells. genetic counseling   Clinical service that advises couples of their probable risk of having children with hereditary defects. genetic-programming theories   Theories that explain biological aging as resulting from a genetically determined developmental timetable. genotype   Genetic makeup of a person, containing both expressed and unexpressed characteristics. genotype-environment correlation   Tendency of certain genetic and environmental influences to reinforce each other; may be passive, reactive (evocative), or active. Also called genotype-environment covariance. genotype-environment interaction   The portion of phenotypic variation that results from the reactions of genetically different individuals to similar environmental conditions. geriatrics   Branch of medicine concerned with processes of aging and medical conditions associated with old age. germinal stage   First 2 weeks of prenatal development, characterized by rapid cell division, blastocyst formation, and implantation in the wall of the uterus. gerontology   Study of the aged and the process of aging. glaucoma   Irreversible damage to the optic nerve caused by increased pressure in the eye. goodness of fit   Appropriateness of environmental demands and constraints to a child's temperament. grief   Emotional response experienced in the early phases of bereavement. grief therapy   Treatment to help the bereaved cope with loss. grief work   Working out of psychological issues connected with grief. gross motor skills   Physical skills that involve the large muscles. guided participation   Participation of an adult in a child's activity in a manner that helps to structure the activity and to bring the child's understanding of it closer to that of the adult. habituation   Type of learning in which familiarity with a stimulus reduces, slows, or stops a response. handedness   Preference for using a particular hand. haptic perception   Ability to acquire information about properties of objects, such as size, weight, and texture, by handling them. Hayflick limit   Genetically controlled limit, proposed by Hayflick, on the number of times cells can divide in members of a species. heredity   Inborn characteristics inherited from the biological parents. heritability   Statistical estimate of contribution of heredity to individual differences in a specific trait within a given population. heterozygous   Possessing differing alleles for a trait. historical generation   A group of people strongly influenced by a major historical event during their formative period. holophrase   Single word that conveys a complete thought. Home Observation for Measurement of the Environment (HOME)