Introduction

While the industrial economy transformed American society, the political system struggled to keep up. Party loyalty reached new heights, but the weakness of the institution of the presidency and the stalemate between the Democrats and Republicans in Congress relegated the federal government to discussing well-worn issues such as the tariff, civil-service reform, and gold and silver standards. The Populist revolt of the 1890s highlighted the inattention of the mainstream parties to the concerns of working-class Americans. The election of 1896 broke the logjam, with William McKinley and Theodore Roosevelt restoring the strength of the presidency and establishing a Republican dominance that they would mostly maintain for the next thirty years. McKinley's and Roosevelt's presidencies were made stronger by the emergence of the United States as an imperial presence on the world stage. War with Spain over Cuba and the subsequent conflict in the Philippines, as well as the drive to open commercial markets in China led to a resurgence in patriotism that gained confidence as the economy prospered. Roosevelt sent his "Great White Fleet" around as a celebration of American strength, but the very name of this flotilla reinforced the deep divisions that remained as the United States entered a new century.

The exercises in this chapter will examine the reasons for the political deadlock, as well as the considerations that forced the United States to increase its focus on international events. The additional links focus on figures and events that played a major role in the political developments of the period.

Web Activities 

1.  Many historians view the Chicago Columbian Exposition of 1893 as the showplace for the remarkable growth in American manufacturing and technology over the previous decades. Yet it also reveals some of the problems that had begun to beset American society as a result of this growth. Go to The World's Columbian Exposition: Idea, Experience, Aftermath and click on the tour. Read the History of the Fair first. Who were the people that supported and created the fair? What were their goals for the fair? Now take the tour, which is a two-part narrative. What did the buildings in the White City celebrate? What parts of American society are missing from the main fairgrounds? What was the original purpose of the Midway? Did its purpose change? Why was it separated from the White City in the fair layout? What kind of attractions did the Midway hold and how were they different from the White City? Now click on the Buffalo Bill link at the end of the first day of the fair tour. Scroll down to contents and click on the Program. What kinds of entertainment did the Buffalo Bill show provide? How does it compare with the White City and the Midway?

2.  Political cartoons that satirize the issues and leaders of the day are an excellent source for analysis of the public mindset of the time. Start at The Presidential Elections from 1860-1884. Examine the cartoons of the various candidates. What characteristics of these men do the cartoons celebrate? What do they lampoon? How does it change over 25 years? Now go to the Hayes-Tilden icon at the top right corner of the web page. Scroll down and click on Cartoons and Illustrations. Browse through the cartoons that chronicle this campaign and its controversial aftermath. What issues do these cartoons raise about this disputed election? Now go to Cartoons of the Gilded Age and Progressive Era. How do these cartoons characterize Grover Cleveland? Theodore Roosevelt? William McKinley?

3.  Read the Preamble to the Populist Platform of 1892. What grievances and concerns does it raise? Now click on the People's Party Platform of 1896. How does this document differ from its predecessor? What issues does it emphasize? Are those issues different from the concerns raised in the 1892 document? Why might the goals of the organization have changed?

4.  Compare the messages conveyed in Booker T. Washington's "The Awakening of the Negro" to those in W.E.B. DuBois' "Of the Training of Black Men". What values did these men regard most highly? What is the difference between the views of these men? Although both view education as important, they have very different views on its role in the uplift of the black race. What kind of education policies did Washington put into practice at his Tuskegee Institute (shown in the photograph above)? What about DuBois' policies? What do you think accounts for the differences in their messages?

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5.  Rudyard Kipling, the famous author and poet, argued for the existence of a "White Man's Burden" that compelled Europeans to exert their influence in other parts of the world. Read Kipling's poem "White Man's Burden" and then examine some of the images the poem influenced and the responses it propagated. What, according to Kipling, is the white man's burden? Do the responses seem to agree with his arguments? Now go to the Images of War and Empire site that has collected photographs, cartoons, and advertisements that chronicled the American invasions and occupations of Cuba and the Philippines. Do these images seem to concur with Kipling's arguments? What other arguments existed for American colonial expansion during this era? What arguments did anti-imperialists use to oppose American interventions?

Additional Research Links

The Revolt of the Farmers

• The Colored Farmers Alliance. A historian's preliminary investigation of the organization of black southern farmers and their role in the Populist movement.

The New Realignment

• Read William Jennings Bryan's 1896 Cross of Gold Speech. How do his concerns compare with those of the Populists? Why were the Populists hesitant to nominate him as their candidate in 1896?
• Read a brief biography of Ida B. Wells, a leader of the national campaign against lynching, and a pamphlet she wrote entitled "Lynch Law in Georgia".
• Go to The Era of William McKinley site for a history of his rise to political power, his political allies, and his presidency

The Imperial Moment

• The U.S.S. Maine. This site describes the history of the battleship whose explosion helped spark the Spanish American War. Read the New York Times reports on the loss of the Maine. For an overview of how the more sensational papers in New York utilize the Maine explosion, go to Yellow Journalism and the Spanish American War.
• Dewey at Manila. Read an article describing the planning and execution of Dewey's invasion of the Philippines.
• The Rough Riders. Read a brief description of Theodore Roosevelt's military unit. How important was Roosevelt's unit to the American victory in Cuba?
• Read the text of John Hay's First Open Door Note (1899). The text of John Hay's First Open Door Note (1899). What policy goals does he set in this document?