| agency point of view | The tendency of bureaucrats to place the interests of their agency ahead of other interests and ahead of the priorities sought by the president or Congress.
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| bureaucracy | A system of organization and control based on the principles of hierarchical authority, job specialization, and formalized rules. (See also formalized rules; hierarchical authority; job specialization.)
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| bureaucratic accountability | The degree to which bureaucrats are held accountable for the power they exercise.
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| cabinet (executive) departments | The major administrative organizations within the federal executive bureaucracy, each of which is headed by a secretary (cabinet officer) and has responsibility for a major function of the federal government, such as defense, agriculture, or justice. (See also cabinet; independent agencies.)
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| clientele groups | Special interest groups that benefit directly from the activities of a particular bureaucratic agency and are therefore strong advocates of the agency.
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| demographic representation | The idea that the bureaucracy will be more responsive to the public if its employees at all levels are demographically representative of the population as a whole.
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| executive leadership system | An approach to managing the bureaucracy that is based on presidential leadership and presidential management tools, such as the president's annual budget proposal. (See also merit system; patronage system.)
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| formalized rules | A basic principle of bureaucracy that refers to the standardized procedures and established regulations by which a bureaucracy conducts its operations. (See also bureaucracy.)
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| government corporations | Bodies, such as the U.S. Postal Service and Amtrak, that are similar to private corporations in that they charge for their services, but different in that they receive federal funding to help defray expenses. Their directors are appointed by the president with Senate approval.
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| hierarchical authority | A basic principle of bureaucracy that refers to the chain of command within an organization whereby officials and units have control over those below them. (See also bureaucracy.)
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| independent agencies | Bureaucratic agencies that are similar to cabinet departments but usually have a narrower area of responsibility. Each such agency is headed by a presidential appointee who is not a cabinet member. An example is the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. (See also cabinet departments.)
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| job specialization | A basic principle of bureaucracy that holds that the responsibilities of each job position should be explicitly defined and that a precise division of labor within the organization should be maintained. (See also bureaucracy.)
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| merit (civil service) system | An approach to managing the bureaucracy whereby people are appointed to government positions on the basis of either competitive examinations or special qualifications, such as professional training. (See also executive leadership system; patronage system.)
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| neutral competence | The administrative objective of a merit-based bureaucracy. Such a bureaucracy should be "competent" in the sense that its employees are hired and retained on the basis of their expertise and "neutral" in the sense that it operates by objective standards rather than partisan ones.
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| patronage system | An approach to managing the bureaucracy whereby people are appointed to important government positions as a reward for political services they have rendered and because of their partisan loyalty. (See also executive leadership system; merit system; spoils system.)
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| policy implementation | The stage of the policy process in which a policy is put into effect and evaluated.
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| presidential commissions | Organizations within the bureaucracy that are headed by commissioners appointed by the president. An example is the Commission on Civil Rights.
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| regulatory agencies | Administrative units, such as the Federal Communications Commission and the Environmental Protection Agency, that have responsibility for the monitoring and regulation of ongoing economic activities.
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| spoils system | The practice of granting public office to individuals in return for political favors they have rendered. (See also patronage system.)
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| sunset law | A law containing a provision that fixes a date on which a program will end unless the program's life is extended by Congress.
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| whistle-blowing | An internal check on the bureaucracy whereby individual bureaucrats report instances of mismanagement that they observe.
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