Coal critical to the early industrialization of Britain
Shift from wood to coal in eighteenth century; deforestation caused wood shortages
Abundant, accessible coal reserves in Britain
Overseas colonies provided raw materials
Plantations in the Americas provided sugar and cotton
Colonies also became markets for British manufactured goods
Grain, timber, and beef shipped from United States to Britain after 1830
Demand for cheap cotton spurred mechanization of cotton industry
John Kay invented the flying shuttle, 1733
Samuel Crompton invented the spinning "mule," 1779
Edmund Cartwright invented a water-driven power loom, 1785
James Watt's steam engine, 1765
Burned coal, which drove a piston, which turned a wheel
Widespread use by 1800 meant increased productivity, cheaper prices
Iron and steel also important industries, with continual refinement
Coke (purified coal) replaced charcoal as principal fuel
Bessemer converter (1856) made cheaper, stronger steel
Transportation improved with steam engines and improved steel
George Stephenson invented the first steam-powered locomotive, 1815
Steamships began to replace sailing ships in the mid-nineteenth century
Railroads and steamships lowered transportation costs and created dense transportation networks
The factory system
The factory gradually replaced the putting-out system
Factory system required division of labor; each worker performed a single task
Required a high degree of coordination, work discipline, and close supervision
Working conditions often harsh
Workers lost status; not skilled, just wage earners
Harsh work discipline, fast pace of work, frequent accidents
Industrial protest
Luddites struck against mills and destroyed machines, 1811 and 1816
Fourteen Luddites hung in 1813, and the movement died
The early spread of industrialization
Industrialization in western Europe
British industrial monopoly, 1750 to 1800, forbade immigration of skilled workers
Napoleon abolished internal trade barriers in western Europe, dismantled guilds
Belgium and France moved toward industrialization by mid-nineteenth century
After German unification, Bismarck sponsored heavy industry, arms, shipping
Industrialization in North America slow to start, few laborers, little capital
British craftsmen started cotton textile industry in New England in 1820s
Heavy iron and steel industries in 1870s
Rail networks developed in 1860s; integrated various regions of United States
Industrial capitalism
Mass production provided cheaper goods
Eli Whitney promoted mass production of interchangeable parts for firearms
Later (1913), Henry Ford introduced assembly line to automobile production
Industrialization expensive; required large capital investment
Encouraged organization of large-scale corporations with hundreds of investors
New laws protected investors from liability
Monopolies, trusts, and cartels: competitive associations
Vertical organization: Rockefeller's Standard Oil Co.
Horizontal organization (or cartel): IG Farben, world's largest chemical company
Industrial society
The fruits of industry
Population growth
Industrialization raised material standards of living
Populations of Europe and America rose sharply from 1700 to 1900
Better diets and improved sanitation reduced death rate of adults and children
Demographic transition: population change typical of industrialized countries
Pattern of declining birthrate in response to declining mortality
Voluntary birth control through contraception
Urbanization and migration
Industrialization drew migrants from countryside to urban centers
By 1900, 50 percent of population of industrialized countries lived in towns
By 1900, more than 150 cities with over one hundred thousand people in Europe and North America
Urban problems: shoddy houses, fouled air, inadequate water supply
By the late nineteenth century, governments passed building codes, built sewer systems
Transcontinental migration: some workers sought opportunities abroad
1800-1920, 50 million Europeans migrated to North and South America
Fled: famine in Ireland, anti-Semitism in Russia, problems elsewhere
Industry and society
New social classes created by industrialization
Captains of industry: a new aristocracy of wealth
Middle class: managers, accountants, other professionals
Working class: unskilled, poorly paid, vulnerable
Dramatic changes to the industrial family
Sharp distinction between work and family life, worked long hours outside home
Family members led increasingly separate lives
Men gained increased stature and responsibility in industrial age
Middle- and upper-class men were sole providers
Valued self-improvement, discipline, and work ethic
Imposed these values on working-class men
(a) Workers often resisted work discipline
(b) Working-class culture: bars, sports, gambling, outlets away from work
Opportunities for women narrowed by industrialization
Working women could not bring children to work in mines or factories
Middle-class women expected to care for home and children
Increased opportunities for women to work in domestic service
Many children forced to work in industry to contribute to family support
1840s, Parliament began to regulate child labor
1881, primary education became mandatory in England
The socialist challenge
Utopian socialists: Charles Fourier, Robert Owen, and their followers
Established model communities based on principle of equality
Stressed cooperative control of industry, education for all children
Marx (1818-1883) and Engels (1820-1895), leading nineteenth-century socialists
Scorned the utopian socialists as unrealistic, unproductive
Critique of industrial capitalism
(a) Unrestrained competition led to ruthless exploitation of working class
(b) State, courts, police: all tools of the capitalist ruling class
The Communist Manifesto, 1848
Claimed excesses of capitalism would lead communist revolution
"Dictatorship of the proletariat" would destroy capitalism
Socialism would follow; a fair, just, and egalitarian society
Ideas dominated European and international socialism throughout nineteenth century
Social reform came gradually, through legislative measures
Regulated hours and restricted work for women and children
Under Bismarck, Germany provided medical insurance and social security
Trade unions formed to represent interests of industrial workers
Faced stiff opposition from employers and governments
Forced employers to be more responsive to workers' needs; averted violence
Global effects of industrialization
The continuing spread of industrialization beyond Europe and North America
Industrialization in Russia promoted by tsarist government
Between 1860 and 1900, built thirty-five thousand miles of railroads
Finance minister, Sergei Witte, promoted industry
(a) Witte oversaw the construction of the trans-Siberian railroad
(b) Reformed commercial law to protect industries and steamship companies
(c) Promoted nautical and engineering schools
(d) Encouraged foreign investors
By 1900 Russia produced half the world's oil, also significant iron and armaments
Industrialization in Japan also promoted by government
Hired thousands of foreign experts to establish modern industries
Created new industries; opened technical institutes and universities
Government-owned businesses then sold to private entrepreneurs (zaibatsu)
Japan was the most industrialized land in Asia by 1900
The international division of labor
Industrialization increased demand for raw materials
Non-industrialized societies became suppliers of raw materials
Cotton from India, Egypt; rubber from Brazil, Malaya, and Congo River basin
Economic development better in lands colonized by Europe
High wages encouraged labor-saving technologies
Canada, Argentina, South Africa, Australia, New Zealand: later industrialized
Economic dependency more common in other countries
Latin America, sub-Saharan Africa, south Asia, and southeast Asia
Foreign investors owned and controlled plantations and production
Free-trade policy favored foreign products over domestic
