On the Web

On the Web

'On the Web' is an internet-based supplement that provides additional web content to supplement the material in Concepts of Fitness and Wellness. Browse through the whole document to explore web content related to this concept. If you know the specific 'On the Web' number or page number of the web icon in the text you can click on the direct link you are looking for below. Click here to access the other Online Learning Center resources available from the McGraw Hill Website (http://www.mhhe.com/corbin7e).

On the Web - Concept 10

Web10-01: Physiology of Muscular Contractions

Web10-02: Muscle Power and Force Production

Web10-03: Absolute and Relative Strength

Web10-04: Types of Progressive Resistance Exercise

Web10-05: Guidelines for Plyometric Training

Web10-06: Functional Balance Training - BOSU

Web10-07: Variable Resistance Machines

Web10-08: Elastic Band Resistance Exercises

Web10-9: Descriptions of Resistance Training Systems

Web10-10: Steroid Usage and Risks

Web10-11: Creatine Supplementation

Web10-12: Fallacies about Resistance Training

Web10-13: Body Weight Test for Strength

Web10-14: Web Resources

Web10-15: Supplemental Readings

Web10-01: Physiology of Muscular Contractions

Muscles produce movement through the contraction (shortening) that takes place within the muscle. The physiological processes underlying the contraction of a muscle is quite complex but the basic concept will be described. Essentially, the shortening of a muscle during a contraction occurs when two protein filaments (actin and myosin) within the muscle fiber slide past each other. Under normal resting conditions, the fibers overlap only a little bit but during a contraction, signals from the nervous system initiate a cascade of biochemical reactions that cause cross bridges to form between the two filaments. The pulling by the cross bridges generates the tension observed from a muscular contraction. The image below shows the general orientation of these protein filaments within a muscle fiber.

Readers interested in more detail regarding these processes are encouraged to consult most basic exercise physiology textbooks. The figures here are used with permission from Hole's Human Anatomy and Physiology (Shier, Butler and Lewis) - McGraw-Hill Publishers

Web10-02: Muscle Power and Force Production

There are two basic types of muscle fibers (fast twitch and slow twitch) that each have different physiological capabilities. Fast twitch fibers generate a lot of force in a short amount of time while slow twitch fibers generate force more slowly but more efficiently. Because of these differences fast twitch fibers are primarily anaerobic and are better suited to high intensity/strength activities. Slow twitch fibers, on the other hand, are better suited to endurance activities.

Each person inherits a certain percentage of each type of muscle fiber type and the pattern may be different in different muscle groups. People with a higher percentage of fast twitch fibers will respond quicker to resistance training and will increase strength to a greater extent than people with more slow twitch fibers. People with a higher percentage of slow twitch muscle fibers will respond better to endurance oriented activities.

Scientists use the muscle biopsy technique to study the function of muscle fibers on a cellular level. By using biochemical staining techniques they can differentiate the different fiber types under a microscope and determine the relative prevalence of fast twitch or slow twitch muscle fibers. The diagram below shows a microscopic image of the stained muscle fibers. In this image, the fast twitch fibers are the dark stained cells and the slow twitch fibers are the light stained cells.

Web10-03: Absolute and Relative Strength

People have been fascinated by the topic of strength since long before the current emphasis on health and fitness. Strength is known to be higher in males than females but this is largely due to the differences in body size and muscle mass. Pound for pound (of muscle) women have similar strength as men. The following page provides links to world records for men and women. The website Powerlifting.com (http://www.powerlifting.com) provides guidelines, rules and informational links about the sport of powerlifting.

USA Powerlifting Records - http://www.usapowerlifting.com/records/american/index.shtml

A useful activity to determine your own relative strength compared to the national or world records for your age, gender and body weight. Your maximal strength divided by the corresponding record could be expressed as a percentage to see how close you are to the record holders.

Web10-04: Types of Progressive Resistance Exercise

Isotonic Exercise

Isotonic exercise is the most typical variety of resistance exercise. Read up on some specific applications and descriptions of isotonic exercise by Fitness Zone, an online exercise guide focusing on strength training.

There are many commercial sites that sell strength equipment. You can learn a lot by browsing through the different informational web pages that explain the advantages and disadvantages of the different equipment. Always remember that these companies are trying to sell you their products so their information may be biased to some degree. The best place to get credible information is from professional organizations that don't have anything to sell. Try the following organizations.

National Strength and Conditioning Association web Page (www.nsca-cc.org)
National Athletic Training Association web page (www.nata.org)
American Council on Exercise (www.acefitness.com)
IDEA Health and Fitness Association (www.ideafit.com)

Isotonic exercise can be performed using free weights or machines and there is considerable debate about the relative merits of each. The book provides considerable information on this topic. Click here to read a comparison by FitnessZone.com on the topic of machines vs free weights.

Isometric Exercises

Isometric exercises were a popular form of training back in the 1950's. Programs such as the Charles Atlas System were advocated to promote strength and fitness. This program is still promoted today (see http://www.charlesatlas.com) but consumers should be wary of claims made for the potential effectiveness of this system. While these exercises can improve strength, research has indicated that the adaptations are specific for the joint angle at which the contraction is performed. Thus, the gains in strength may only be manifested when the body is at this joint angle.

Still, isometric exercises do provide a convenient and efficient way to promote or maintain some degree of muscular fitness. The specific exercises included in the text provide a balanced routine that would work the major muscle groups of the body.

Read up on some specific applications and descriptions of isometric exercise by Fitness Zone, an online exercise guide focusing on strength training.

Isokinetic Exercise Machines

Isokinetic exercises refer to movements that take place at a controlled rate of speed. Rather than seeing how much weight or resistance can be moved, the goal in isokinetic exercises is to see how much force can be applied at different movement speeds. The primary application of these devices is for clinical or research purposes but some isokinetic devices have been used specifically for simulating activities of certain sports. For example, swimmers often use an isokinetic swim bench to promote sport specific strength in the muscles involved in swimming.

In the image below, the person is contracting his quadriceps muscle against the resistance provided by the machine. The computer reports how much force he could apply at a given speed.

Source for image: Polar Electro Oy

Web10-05: Guidelines for Plyometric Training

Plyometrics is a popular technique that is used for power training. It is an advanced training technique that has been found to be useful for increasing power and vertical jump ability. It typically includes a variety of jumps and hops that maximally overload the muscles. While the high intensity of plyometric training can increase risks of injury a statement (Current Comment) by the American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM) indicates that it can be done safely even by children and adolescents. Visit the ACSM website (www.acsm.org) and search the Current Comment section on Plyometrics.

A number of other professional associations also offer useful information on strength and resistance exercise including plyometrics:

National Strength and Conditioning Association web Page (www.nsca-cc.org)
National Athletic Training Association web page (www.nata.org)
American Council on Exercise (www.acefitness.com)
IDEA Health and Fitness Association (www.ideafit.com)

Additional information on Plyometrics is available in Concept 12 or visit the On the Web section from Concept 12 devoted to plyometrics (Web12-07). Some popular plyometric exercises include: two foot ankle hop, box jumps, leg bounding, overhead throws, and squat throws.

Web10-06: Functional Balance Training - BOSU

One of the latest trends in balance and strength training is the BOSU trainer. BOSU stands for both sides up and training focuses on core strength, balance, and aerobic conditioning. The BOSU trainer is similar to an exercise ball, but it is only half of a ball that is connected to a base. Exercises can be performed with the ball side facing up or down depending on the exercise.

Several of the basic BOSU exercises are described at Exercise.about.com and Fitness for Health. For more information on BOSU training see the links below (pictures courtesy of BOSU.com).

Bosu.com: http://www.bosu.com/
BOSU Pro: http://www.bosupro.com/scripts/cgiip.exe/WService=bosupro/story.html
BOSU Trainers: http://www.nefitco.com/bosu_ball.html
BOSU Videos: http://www.collagevideo.com/bosu-videos-dvds/workouts-exercises-balls.aspx

Web10-07: Variable Resistance Machines

Variable resistance machines typically employ a "cam design" which attempts to match the resistance to the strength of the muscles throughout the range of motion. For example, during a bicep curl, the resistance is greatest at 90 degrees when the weight is farthest from the body (and farthest from the axis of rotation). The resistance is easiest at top and bottom of the movement. Using variable resistance machines, the resistance can be altered so that a person gets a maximal challenge throughout the range of motion. A common variable resistance machine in many fitness centers is the Nautilus system (pictured below):

Individuals interested in the relative advantages and disadvantages of the different types of resistance training equipment are encouraged to visit some of the commercial websites on these products.

Cybex International - http://www.cybexintl.com
Nautilus - http://www.nautilus.com/
Hammer Strength - http://www.hammerstrength.com/
Paramount - http://www.paramountfitness.com/
Life Fitness - http://www.lifefitness.com/

The Bodytrends.com website on strength training products provides some comparisons among the different strength training products.

Web10-08: Elastic Band Resistance Exercises

A variety of resistance exercises can be performed without the need for expensive equipment. This page provides hyperlinks to some graphic and text descriptions of various exercises that can be completed with basic "rubber band" equipment. These bands are used by many physical therapists and are available through medical supply companies. One common brand is known as "Thera-band". Exercises can be created with elastic bands to work almost any muscle group.

For additional information consult the following text:
The Scientific and Clinical Application of Elastic Resistance (2003). Page, Phillip, and Ellenbecker, T.S. (Eds.) Human Kinetics: Champaign, IL.

Web10-9: Descriptions of Resistance Training Systems

There are a number of different training systems and theories that are currently used for resistance training. They each have different advantages and disadvantages. The American College of Sports Medicine (www.acsm.org) recently released a definitive position statement on the different resistance training systems that are available. Visit the website and look up the Position Stands devoted to strength training (the most recent one is dated Feb 1, 2002)

Descriptions of the various training systems commonly used for resistance training are provided below to familiarize you with the terminology used in resistance training research. Descriptions are provided on the various ways that exercises can be ordered in a workout (e.g. Supersets, Pre-Exhaust, Circuit, Giant Sets, Blitz etc...). Information is also provided on the various ways that repetitions and sets can be organized to alter the training stimulus (e.g. multiple set, Oxford, DeLorme, Pyramids, Point of Failure etc...). See Sections below:

Format of Repetitions

Single Set System:

A single set of 8-12 repetitions is performed for each exercise. Significant strength gains can occur with this system but in general the gains are smaller than those achieved with multiple sets.

Multiple Set System:

Several sets with the same resistance are performed for each exercise. Usually a warm-up set is recommended so that maximal effort can be used for the other sets. The resistance and number of repetitions determine the effects of this type of system. Most training systems are some type of variation of this basic multi-set concept.

Bulk System:

This multiple set system emphasizes the use of heavy loads and fewer repetitions to maximize strength. Generally, 3 sets of 5-6 repetitions per exercise.

Heavy to Light System (Oxford):

After a brief warm-up the heaviest set is performed first followed by progressively lighter loads. This allows the resistance to more closely match the strength levels of the muscles as they begin to fatigue.
Ex) set #1 100 lbs.
set #2 90 lbs.
set #3 80 lbs.

Light to Heavy System (DeLorme Watkins):

This system recommends progressively greater loads with each set to maximally stress the muscle groups. Significant strength gains have been demonstrated using this program, however, most research suggests that the heavy to light system is better for increasing strength.
Ex) set #1 50% 50 lbs.
set #2 75% 75 lbs.
set #3 100% 100 lbs.

Point of Failure System:

This system emphasizes doing as many repetitions as possible before muscular fatigue sets in. It is a very challenging system but continually stresses the muscles to their full capacity.
Ex) bench press 150 lbs. / 3X (POF)

Forced Repetitions System:

Perform repetitions to muscular fatigue and then have a spotter assist with two additional "forced" repetitions.
Ex) bench press 150 lbs. / 3X (POF + 2)

Pyramid System:

Pyramid sets involve performing a series of sets with low weight/high reps progressing to high weight/low rep sets and finally back to low weight/high rep sets. This system is often used by power lifters.
175 X 6
165 X 8    165 X 8
155 X 10                155 X 10
145 X 12                        145 X 12
135 X 15                                135 X 15

Reverse Pyramid System:

Several sets of exercises are performed in quick succession using progressively lighter weights to compensate for the increasing muscular fatigue. The number of repetitions stays the same while the weight is reduced. In this type of set, large amounts of lactic acid are formed which contributes to the impending fatigue. This type of training will increase tolerance to fatigue and will help train both slow twitch and fast twitch fibers.

Forced System:

A spotter gives assistance through the "sticking" point of a movement usually only on the last few repetitions of the last set to help the lifter overload the muscle. The spotter should help keep the bar moving at a constant speed. Forcing someone to strain against a stationary bar can cause serious injuries and conditions (passing out).

Nautilus System:

The Nautilus principle recommends the use of 1 set of 8-12 repetitions designed such that total muscular fatigue is reached in the last repetition. The exercises are very high intensity and should be performed in a circuit like fashion (8-14 exercises) for optimal benefits.
Ex) 1 set 8-12 X bench press
1 set 8-12 X incline press
1 set 8-12 X seated military press

Cheat System:

The object of the cheat system is to use other muscle groups and movements to get an individual past the "sticking point" of an exercise. This, theoretically, allows heavier weights to be used which permits the muscles to contract at near maximal force through a greater range of motion. It is effective in increasing strength but it is not recommended since it can lead to serious injuries.

Ordering of Exercises in a Workout

Basic Program:

A core of exercises covering the whole body is used. Exercises that work several muscle groups over a wide range of movement are ideal-avoid highly skilled movements. The number of repetitions varies according to the training aims but should be between 10-20. The number of sets for each exercise is 1-3 and the program should be repeated 3 times per week. The program is useful for beginners or for individuals returning to training following a layoff.

Circuit Program:

Circuit training involves performing one set of a variety of exercises in a row with little or no rest between sets. A circuit usually consists of 8-20 stations which can be repeated 1-4 times. By using low weights and performing high repetitions, circuit training can be extremely effective in promoting muscular endurance and even some aerobic fitness. By alternating body parts in consecutive stations local muscle fatigue can be delayed.
Ex) Station 1 = bench press
Station 2 = leg press
Station 3 = shoulder press
Station 4 = leg extension
Station 5 = arm curl
Station 6 = leg curl, etc...

Superset Program:

Supersets are essentially a series of mini-circuits. You alternate exercises within one circuit to delay fatigue but complete several sets of each exercise before moving to the next mini-circuit. Since there is usually little rest time between sets, this program can be completed in a short amount of time and is well suited for beginning lifters.
Ex) bench press, leg curl, bench press, leg curl, shoulder press, arm curl, shoulder press, arm curl

Push-Pull Program:

This program is a type of superset but it emphasizes working antagonistic muscle groups in alternating sets. Very little time is provided between sets (< 1 minute) since the muscles can relax during the opposite exercise. The advantage of this program is that it is fast and works the agonist and antagonist groups together for balanced development.
Ex) bicep curl, tricep extension, bicep curl, tricep extension, bench press, lat pull, bench press, lat pull

Pre-exhaustion Program:

This program is a type of superset involving the consecutive use of muscles that work the same muscles. Typically, exercises that work a muscle in isolation are performed prior to a more general exercise for that area. The rationale is that by tiring out the main muscle group other motor units as well as other muscles get a better exercise stress. Do not get this confused with "cheating" exercises in which the target muscles never get a full workout due to overemphasis by other muscle groups.
Ex) lat raises followed by shoulder press would preexhaust the lats and force other shoulder muscles to work harder during the next exercise.

Giant Sets Program:

This program involves performing several exercises for the same muscle in quick succession to make one large giant set. Limited rest is provided within the set but rest is given before the individual performs another set of exercises. This type of program produces a very thorough state of muscle fatigue in a short period of time. It is an advanced form of training that is useful when there is a limited amount of time.
Ex) lateral raise, upright rowing, military press.

Split Routine Program:

Instead of working the whole body in one routine, this program works some muscle groups in one day and then trains another group on another day. This program enables you to have more energy and time for each muscle group while still providing rest for each muscle group. Workouts become shorter but are often of higher quality. This type of program is typically the choice of advanced weight lifters but is not generally recommended for beginning lifters. There are a number of different ways to divide up the body. Some examples are as follows:
Ex) M/W: chest, shoulder, triceps
T/Th: back, legs, biceps

Blitz Program:

This program is a specialized type of split routine in which a single body part is emphasized for a given days workout. It can be extremely stressful but may be helpful if an individual's performance is limited by a particular muscle group.
Ex) M: arm
T: chest
W: leg
Th: trunk
F: back
S: shoulder

Isolated Exercise Program:

This program is even more specific than the blitz program. A single exercise is performed for a whole days workout. Different exercises are chosen for different days. Like the blitz program, this program is very stressful and is not recommended for beginning or even intermediate lifters.
Ex) M: bench press / T: squat

Web10-10: Steroid Usage and Risks

Steroids are used by some athletes as a quick way to build muscle mass. Many people assume they are safe because they mimic the effect of a normal hormone in the body (testosterone) and build muscle. There are many harmful consequences associated with steroids.

The National Institute on Drug Abuse provides a number of detailed resources on Steroid abuse. Click on the links below to access their Research Report on steroids or access specific information on these topics by clicking on the links below:

What are anabolic steroids?

What are steroidal supplements?

What is the scope of steroid abuse in the United States?

Why do people use anabolic steroids?

How are anabolic steroids used?

What are the health consequences of steroid abuse?

What effects do anabolic steroids have on behavior?

Are anabolic steroids addictive?

What can be done to prevent steroid abuse?

What treatments are effective for anabolic steroid abuse?

Where can I get further scientific information about steroid abuse?

Web10-11: Creatine Supplementation

Creatine is a nutrient involved in the production of energy during short-term, high-intensity exercise such as resistance exercise. Creatine is produced naturally by the body from foods containing protein but some athletes now take creatine supplements (usually a powder that is dissolved into a liquid) to increase the amounts available in the muscle. The concept behind supplementation is that additional creatine intake would enhance energy production and therefore increase the ability of the body to maintain force and delay fatigue. Some studies have shown improvements in performance but recent reviews indicate that the supplement may only be effective to athletes that are already well trained. One recent meta analytic review by Misic and Kelley concluded that "...the ergogenic effect of creatine, although widely publicized and believed, is not supported by the present data." Another meta-analysis confirmed that when combined with resistance exercise, creatine supplementation does increase lean body mass. Therefore, some changes in mass are possible but these may not influence performance. The conflicting impact of creatine may also depend on the state of training of the individual.

Web Links:

Quackwatch: http://www.quackwatch.org/01QuackeryRelatedTopics/DSH/creatine.html
ACSM Current Comment: http://www.acsm.org/AM/Template.cfm?Section=Search§ion=19991&template=/CM/ContentDisplay.cfm&ContentFileID=283

Web10-12: Fallacies about Resistance Training

Muscles work together to produce movement. While one muscle contracts and shortens the opposing muscle group relaxes and lengthens. The "agonist" muscle group is the muscle group that is contracting to produce movement and the "antagonist" muscle group is the opposing muscle group that lengthens to allow the movement to take place. For good muscle fitness, it is important to have good balance between the two opposing muscle groups. If one muscle group is much stronger or weaker than the opposing group, the resulting muscle imbalance can lead to an increase risk of injury. A common example of this is with sprinters "pulling a hamstring" (muscle strain) during a sprinting activity. Most sprinters have highly developed quadriceps muscles but less developed hamstring muscles and these muscles get overpowered during the sprint and get injured. To reduce this risk, it is important to work muscle groups in pairs so that one group doesn't become over-developed relative to the other one.

It is important to following safety guidelines for resistance exercise. The American College of Sports Medicine provides recommendations on Training and Injury Prevention. Visit the ACSM website (www.acsm.org) and search the Position Stands section for Training and Injury Prevention.

A number of other professional associations also offer useful information on strength and resistance exercise:

National Strength and Conditioning Association web Page (www.nsca-cc.org)
National Athletic Training Association web page (www.nata.org)
American Council on Exercise (www.acefitness.com)
IDEA Health and Fitness Association (www.ideafit.com)

Web10-13: Body Weight Test for Strength

The Body Weight test provides a way to assess general strength without the use of any special equipment. The test includes five different "stunts", each of which is progressively harder than the previous one. The higher exercise that you can complete, the greater your strength. Start with the highest one that you think you can do. If you complete it, try the next one. Points can be used to tally your total score if you choose to use a combined score on all tests. The tests are described below in order of difficulty.

Web10-14: Web Resources

American College of Sports Medicine - www.acsm.org

National Athletic Trainers Association - www.nata.org

National Strength and Conditioning Association - www.nsca-cc.org

The Physician and Sports Medicine Online - www.physsportsmed.com

Web10-15: Supplemental Readings

References new to 7e/14e

Baechle, T. R and R. W. Earle. 2006. Weight Training (3^rd ed). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

Delavier, F. 2006. Strength Training Anatomy (2^nd ed.). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics

Fahey, T. D. 2007. Basic Weight Training for Men and Women, 6th Ed. St. Louis: McGraw-Hill Higher Education.

Kraemer, W. 2005. Progression and resistance training. President's Council on Physical Fitness and Sports Research Digest. 6(3):1-8.

Kristal, A. R., Littman, A. J., Benitez, D., & White, E. (2005). Yoga practice is associated with attenuated weight gain in healthy, middle-aged men and women. Altern.Ther.Health Med, 11, 28-33.

Ohira, T. et al. 2006. Effects of weight training on quality of life in recent breast cancer survivors: The Weight Training for Breast Cancer Survivors (WTBS) study. Cancer. In Press.

Peterson, M.D., Rhea, M.R., & Alvar, B.A. 2005. Applications of the dose-response for muscular strength development: A review of meta-analytic efficacy and reliability for designing training prescription. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 19(4): 950-958

Shiner, J. et al. 2005. Integrating low-intensity plyometrics into strength and conditioning programs. Strength and Conditioning Journal 27(6): 10-20.

Zatsiorsky, V. M and Kraemer, W. J. 2006. Science and Practice of Strength Training (2nd Ed.). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

References from Past Editions

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Mujika, I., Padilla, S., Ibanez, J., Izquierdom M., & Gorostiaga, E. Creatine supplementation and sprint performance of soccer players. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise. 32(2), 518-525, 2000.
Payne, V. G. et al. Resistance Training in Children and Youth: A Meta Analysis. ACSM's Health and Fitness. 2(3)(1998):11.
Perry, P.J. "Illicit Anabolic Steroid Use in Athletes: A Case Series Analysis." American Journal of Sports Medicine 18(1990):422-28.
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Home > Concept 10 > On the Web

	Course-wide Content
		On the Web PowerWeb

	Learning Resources
		On the Web Application Assignments
	News, Articles, Resources
		Web Resources
	Study Resources
		Concept Outline Concept Key Terms
	Video Activities
		1. Introduction 2. Video Clip 3. Discussion Questions 4. Conclusion

	Instructor Resources
		PowerPoint Presentations Instructors Manual Lab Activities Lab Information Image Bank CPS by eInstruction Test Banks Computerized Test Bank New Edition Preview

	Course-wide Content
		On the Web PowerWeb

	Instructor Resources
		PowerPoint Presentations Lab Information Image Bank

	Learning Resources
		On the Web Application Assignments
	News, Articles, Resources
		Web Resources
	Study Resources
		Concept Outline Concept Key Terms
	Video Activities
		1. Introduction 2. Video Clip 3. Discussion Questions 4. Conclusion