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On the Web - Concept 12

Web12-01: Adaptations to Endurance Training

Web12-02: Adaptations to Anaerobic Training and the "Anaerobic Threshold"

Web12-03: Interval Training and Heart Rate Monitoring

Web 12-04: Power Lifting Training

Web12-05: Body Building Training

Web12-06: Plyometric Training

Web12-07: Functional Balance Training

Web12-08: Periodization and Training for Performance

Web12-09: Ergogenic Aids- Physiological

Web12-10: Web Resources

Web12-11: Supplemental Readings

Web12-01: Adaptations to Endurance Training

Regular endurance training improves the bodies' ability to perform aerobic exercise. Some of the adaptations occur as a result of improvements in the general functioning of the heart. These adaptations are considered to be "non-specific", meaning that any aerobic activity that challenges the cardiovascular system can promote these gains. Other adaptations are specific to the activity that is performed. These adaptations occur at the cellular level in the specific muscles that are used for the given activity. Collectively, the adaptations improve the bodies' ability to take in, distribute and use oxygen to produce and use energy. A brief list of some of the adaptations resulting from aerobic conditioning is included below:

• Increased number and size of mitochondria
• Increased blood volume
• Increased number of capillaries
• Increased myoglobin content
• Increased maximal a-v O2 difference
• Increased heart volume
• Increased maximal stroke volume
• Increased maximal cardiac output
• Increased VO2 max
• Increased glycogen storage
• Increased ability to utilize fats
• Decreased resting heart rate

Many individuals have recently become interested in the concept of "cross-training" or including different types of activities in their aerobic training program. The idea is that by alternating the type of activity, your body will adapt differently and will be better trained overall. This concept makes some intuitive sense but for high-level performance, it is probably best for athletes to train specifically in their primary sport. While any aerobic activity can help to elicit the "non-specific" cardiovascular adaptations, it may not all provide effective adaptations to the specific muscle groups required for high-level performance. For example, adaptations from cycling may not directly carryover to improving running performance since the muscle fibers and the recruitment patterns of these fibers are different for the two movement.

In terms of total aerobic conditioning, many people consider elite cross country (Nordic) skiers to be the "most highly fit" endurance athletes. The reason for this is that cross country skiing requires both upper and lower body movements and therefore leads to greater adaptations (and higher VO2 max levels).

In the United States, the most decorated and successful endurance athlete is arguably Lance Armstrong, a cyclist who has won the Tour de France seven consecutive years. Individuals interested in learning more about high level endurance training can read up on some aspects of Lance Armstrong's training regimen and the physiology behind it.

Web12-02: Adaptations to Anaerobic Training and the "Anaerobic Threshold"

Activities like sprinting require levels of energy that are greater than the body can produce with the aerobic (with oxygen) metabolism. For these activities, the body relies on anaerobic (without oxygen) processes. The body still takes in oxygen during these activities but creates the energy for the activity using a process that doesn't require oxygen. Lactic acid is a byproduct of anaerobic metabolism. It builds up to high levels within the muscles and eventually leads to fatigue during these high intensity activities.

The concept of an "anaerobic threshold" has been a controversial one among exercise physiologists. It refers to the intensity at which the lactic acid (produced through the anaerobic processes) begins to accumulate in the blood stream. Because technically there is really no specific intensity at which the body begins to use the anaerobic system, many have used the term "lactate threshold" to represent this same point. The diagram below illustrates the relationships among heart rate (HR), oxygen consumption (VO2) and lactic acid (LA) production during progressively more intense exercise.

The graph shows that as the intensity of exercise increases, heart rate and respiration increase to help provide more oxygenated blood to the exercising muscles. Thus HR and VO2 rise in a parallel fashion for most submaximal intensities. At higher intensities the body must rely on contributions from the anaerobic system to keep exercising. The contribution of the anaerobic metabolic system can be seen in the green line that depicts (LA) concentration. At low intensities, the body can break down all of the LA that is produced so the levels remain constant. At progressively higher intensities, the production of LA exceeds the removal rate or oxidation rate and the levels rise sharply. This sharp increase in LA is typically referred to as the "anaerobic threshold" or the "lactate threshold". At intensities much beyond this level it is difficult to continue exercising for an extended period of time because the accumulation of LA will cause the muscles to fatigue. The "anaerobic threshold" is an important determinant of endurance performance because it defines the level of activity a person can perform before they begin to accumulate lactic acid in the blood. Typically marathon runners will be able to sustain a pace just below this threshold for most of the race. Because of its importance for high-level performance, anaerobic training is an essential part of high-level training. One of the most common methods for building the anaerobic system is with interval training. The goal from anaerobic interval training is to shift the lactic acid curve to the right. In other words, you want to train your body so that you can exercise at a higher intensity before you begin to accumulate lactic acid in the blood.

Web12-03: Interval Training and Heart Rate Monitoring

Anaerobic interval training is a common training technique for athletes interested in competitive endurance sports, speed/power-based team sports. It provides a systematic way to challenge the bodies' anaerobic system so that it elicits positive training adaptations. With interval training, the athlete performs repeated bouts of exercise at a high intensity followed by a planned rest period to allow the body to recover. The alternating bouts of work and rest are repeated to provide intermittent challenges to the anaerobic system. Interval training is considered the most efficient way to train these systems since it allows the athlete to perform more total work at a high intensity than if the exercise was continuous. The reason for this is that the rest periods provide a bit of essential recovery that prepares the body for the next repeat.

Roger Bannister, the first runner to break the 4-minute mile, was credited with popularizing the technique for distance running. He reasoned that to break the four-minute mile, he had to run repeated 1/4 mile sprints at a high intensity so that he could string them together for a whole mile. The volume and intensity of his training was superior to the other runners at the time and allowed him to set that famous record. Click here to read more on Roger Bannister.

As described in the text, intervals can be manipulated in a variety of ways to modify the training stress. For example, you can increase the frequency, intensity (pace or speed) or the duration (number of repeats). Another important variable is the duration of the rest interval. The rest interval has to be long enough to provide a reasonable recovery but not too long to bring the body fully back to a resting state. Readers interested in high level training of this type should consult with an expert prior to beginning these workouts as the risk for injuries is higher than for more steady-state exercise.

A company called Peak Performance (www.pponline.co.uk) specializes in helping athletes reach their performance potential. Their web site provides specific interval training workouts for a variety of sports. This is a commercial site but students may find the information helpful in understanding aspects of high level training.

Web 12-04: Power Lifting Training

Power lifting is not an Olympic sport but it has increased in popularity over the past 20 years. There are three lifts in Power lifting: The Squat, Bench Press, and Deadlift. Competitive power lifters use many different types of training programs. The main goal is to train to lift as much as possible for one repetition. Power lifting training emphasizes practicing the competitive lifts. Athletes interested in power training must also perform specialized training to improve power. A recent consensus statement on power development was released by the United States Olympic Committee (USOC) and the American College of Sports Medicine as part of their regular Human Performance Summit meetings. They recommend the use of the Power Development Pyramid.

• Phase I: Foundation of core stability and technique in movement
• Phase II: Strength component (slow speed, high force movements with high resistance)
• Phase III: Power development (fast speed, low force movements with low resistance)
• Phase IV: Sport specific power development (sport-specific movements with light to moderate resistance as quickly as possible).

For additional information, visit the following websites:

National Strength and Conditioning Association: (www.nsca-cc.org)

Web12-05: Body Building Training

Body builders have specialized training programs to meet the specific needs of an individuals muscular balance, which includes size, symmetry, and definition. Body building includes a variety of training programs, but most include some basic components. Generally, body building workouts include more exercises than other types of training programs. Variables that are manipulated in a training program are described below:

Order of Exercise:
Usually the lifter progresses from larger to smaller muscle groups.

Resistance:
Resistance is usually moderate (8 to 12 RM). The focus is not on strength but on optimal muscular hypertrophy.

Number of Sets:
Most body builders use multiple sets of an exercise, 3 to 6 sets is common (10 to 15 sets is not unusual).

Rest Periods:
Rest periods are typically short in this type of training program. Rest periods are from 30 to 90 seconds.

For additional information, visit the following websites:

National Strength and Conditioning Association: (www.nsca-cc.org)

Web12-06: Plyometric Training

Plyometrics has been shown to be an effective way to build sport-specific power. Because it is an advanced technique individuals interested in plyometric training should consult a coach or trainer experienced in this technique. Some general and specific guidelines are provided below from Brittenham (1992). This reference would be useful to anyone interested in more information.

General Guidelines:

Adequate strength should be developed prior to starting plyometrics.
Use shoes with good lateral stability, good arch support and a non-slip sole

Web Resources:

For additional information on Plyometrics, visit the following informational pages on plyometrics from various commercial websites. Because this information is from commercial websites, students should carefully evaluate the information and consult a physician prior to beginning any type of specialized training.

Other Sources on Plyometrics:

Schmidtbleicher, D. (1992). Training for Power Events. In (Komi, P.V. ed) Strength and Power in Sport. Blackwell Scientific Publisher, Oxford, 381-395.

Jumping Into Plyometrics by Donald A. Chu.

Web12-07: Functional Balance Training

Functional balance training has become a popular exercise and training method for improved balance, strength, and performance. Functional balance training is often performed using specific equipment for the training such as exercise balls, balance boards, Bosu trainers, and balance discs.

Listed below are some resources for purchasing these pieces of equipment:
Exercise Prescription Kits
Perform Better
Pathway to Wellness
Low Cost Equipment

Listed below are some resources for creating exercise programs for functional balance training:
Bosu Exercises
Get Fit
Exercise Ball Exercises
Balance Board Exercises
Balance Pad or Disc Exercises

Web12-08: Periodization and Training for Performance

Periodization is a technique that elite athletes use to optimize their training. By alternative the periods of intense exercise with periods of less intense exercise he/she can ensure that his/her body is getting sufficient rest to adapt and recover.

Typically athletes build up their base by increasing the volume of exercise. Then they will cut back on volume and begin to focus more on the intensity of their workouts. At the stages before competition they will reduce both volume and intensity and allow their body to get completely rested. This is called tapering. An example of an annual training program with built in phases of periodization is included below. Readers interested in setting up detailed programs such as this should consult with a trained exercise science professional.

Web Resources:
For additional information on Periodization, visit the following informational pages from various commercial websites. Because this information is from commercial websites, students should carefully evaluate the information and consult a physician prior to beginning any type of specialized training.

Web12-09: Ergogenic Aids- Physiological

There are many drinks, bars, supplements, powders and pills that make claims to be an "ergogenic aid" or performance enhancing substance. According to Dr. Steven Barrett from Quackwatch.com (a reputable group aimed at educating consumers about quackery):

"more than a hundred companies are marketing phony "ergogenic aids," combinations of various vitamins, minerals, amino acids, and other "dietary supplements" claimed to build muscles and/or enhance athletic performance. In 1991, researchers from the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention surveyed twelve popular health and bodybuilding magazines (one issue each) and found ads for 89 brands and 311 products with a total of 235 unique ingredients. Health Foods Business estimates that in 1996, total sales of such products through health-food stores exceeded $204 million. They are also sold through pharmacies and superstores."

These products prey on athletes' strong interest in improving performance and a general lack of knowledge about the physiological principles governing exercise performance. Many of the products are described in fitness-related magazines and consumers assume that these are unbiased and credible sources of information. The reality is that many of these publications are owned by the same companies that sell and market supplements. It is clearly illegal in our society to make false claims on product labels (this would be "false advertising") but it is legal to publish an opinion in a publication or magazine (this is "free press"). Consumers should be aware that descriptions of products and explanations of metabolic processes related to exercise or nutrition may not be supported by the scientific community. Students are encouraged to read the full article by Dr. Barrett to learn more about the problems related to quackery in the ergogenic aids industry.

While the above commentary presents a cynical view of ergogenic aids there are a number of products that have legitimate benefits for enhancing performance. The chart in the book provides a summary of products that have documented effectiveness. Some are described below.

• Fluid Replacement beverages and Energy Bars: Fluid replacement beverages such as Gatorade, Exceed and Power Aide contain carbohydrates needed for endurance exercise. People exercising for more than an hour can benefit from these supplements and research shows that they can still provide fluid to replace fluid lost in sweat at the same or faster rate than water. Energy bars such as PowerBars or ClifBars also provide valuable energy for endurance exercise.
• Creatine: Creatine has been shown to help athletes perform strength or anaerobic exercise. The products containing creatine do not work by themselves but instead only help athletes maximize their training or performance during an event.

Web Resources:

There are numerous websites devoted to performance enhancing substances. Because most of this information is from commercial websites, students should be very careful to evaluate the information and the credibility of the sources.

Other Sources on Physiological Ergogenic Aids:

Performance-Enhancing Substances in Sport and Exercise by Michael S. Bahrke and Charles Yesalis

Web12-10: Web Resources

Gatorade Sports Science Research Institute - http://www.gssiweb.com
National Athletic Trainers Association - www.nata.org
National Collegiate Athletic Association - www.ncaa.org
National Strength and Conditioning Association - www.nsca-cc.org
Special Olympics International www.specialolympics.org
United States Olympic Committee - www.usoc.org
Womens Sports Foundation - www.womenssportsfoundation.org

Web12-11: Supplemental Readings

References new to 7e/14e

Bahr, R. et al. 2003. Risk factors for sports injuries - a methodological approach. British Journal of Sports Medicine. 37:384-392.

Begier, E. 2004. A High-Morbidity Outbreak of Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus among Players on a College Football Team, Facilitated by Cosmetic Body Shaving and Turf Burns. Clinical Infectious Diseases, 39(10):1446-1453.

Kraemer, W. et al. 2005. Progression and resistance training. President's Council on Physical Fitness and Sports Research Digest. 6(3):1-8.

Shiner, J. et al. 2005. Integrating low-intensity plyometrics into strength and conditioning programs. Strength and Conditioning Journal 27(6): 10-20.

Rererences from Past Editions

• ACSM. (1997). Position stand on the Female athlete triad. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise. 29,(5):1997):i.
• Agosti, R. Reduce Risk of Activity Induced Injury. ACSM's Health and Fitness. 2(2)(1998):28.
• "Athletes Find Health Food Supplements Big Trouble." Toronto Star, Nov. 15, 1995.
• Barrett, S., & V. Herbert. "How Athletes are Exploited" in The Vitamin Pushers. Prometheus, 1994.
• Bartels, R.L. "Weight Training: How to Lift and Eat for Strength and Power." Physician and Sportsmedicine 20(1992):233-34.
• Baechle, T. R. and Earle, R. W. (eds.) Essentials of Strength Training and Conditioning (2^nd ed.) Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 2000.
• Bouchard, C. et al. Genetics of Fitness and Physical Performance. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 1997.
• Brownell, K., J. Rodin, & J. Wilmore, eds. Eating, Body Weight, and Performance in Athletes: Disorders of Modern Society. Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger, 1992.
• Chu, D. A. Jumping Into Plyometrics. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 1998.
• Clark, N. "Protein Myths: The Meat of the Matter." Sportcare and Fitness 2(1989):53.
• Kreider, R.B., A. C. Fry, & M. L. O"Toole. Overtraining in Sport. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 1998.
• Martin, D. R. Athletic Shoes: Finding a Good Match. The Physician and Sports Medicine, 25(9)(1997):138.
• Morgan, G. T. & G. H. McGlynn. Cross-Training for Sports. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 1997.
• Otis, C. Too slim, Amenorrheic, Fracture Prone: The Female Athlete Triad. ACSM's Health and Fitness Journal. 2(1)(1998):20.
• Raglin, J. and Bardukas, A. Overtraining in athletes: The challenge of prevention-a consenus statement. ACSM's Health and Fitness Journal. 3(2), 27-31, 1999.
• Tofler, I. R., et al. Physical and Emotional Problems of Elite Female Gymnasts. New England Journal of Medicine. 335(4)(1998):281.
• Volek, J. S. Update: What we know about creatine. ACSM's Health and Fitness Journal. 3(3), 27-33, 1999.
• Wilks, B. "Stress Management for Athletes." Sports Medicine 11(1991):289-99.