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On the Web – Concept 16

Web16-01: Stress among College Students

Web16-02: Type A and Type D Personality Types

Web16-03: Hardiness as a Mediator of the Effect of Stress

Web16-04: Web Resources

Web16-05: Supplemental Readings

Web16-01: Stress among College Students

Stress is a major part of life and the varied tasks of college life can be particularly stressful. Stress can be hard to define but most people know when they are feeling it. At present, there is not a definitive reference source on the Internet that specializes in stress management for college students. The website CampusBlues.com website is probably the most comprehensive source of information as it provides general information and links to a variety of other resources that may help students cope with the effects of stress. For example, eating disorders and alcohol and drug related problems may stem from stress related problems. Visit the CampusBlues.com website at (http://www.campusblues.com/stress.asp).

For additional information on stress at college conduct a search on google (www.google.com) or yahoo (www.yahoo.com) and use the keywords "stress" and "college". There are a number of useful links that are developed by specific universities. You might also try to search on "stress" from within your universities home page to see what resources and information are available on your own campus.

Job stress is also major form of stress for working adults.

• Visit the web page on job stress supported by the American Institute of Stress (www.stress.org).
• Visit the web page titled Stress at Work developed by the National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), a division of the National Institutes of Health.

Web16-02: Type A and Type D Personality Types

Do you know what personality type you have?  As it was discussed in the text, your personality can play a role in your risk for negative health outcomes.  Type B personalities are relaxed and easy going, and these types of people are less likely to react to stress and create negative health outcomes.  Type A personalities, on the other hand, are usually highly driven and motivated people.  They are more likely to become hostile or angry during periods of stress which can ultimately lead to poor health outcomes.  Recently, the Type D personality has been identified.  This type of person is more likely to express negative emotions, particularly in social situations, when stressed.

To find out if you are at risk for potential adverse health outcomes, take the following tests to discover what type of personality you have.

Type A Personality Test
Type D Personality Test
General Personality Test

Web16-03: Hardiness as a Mediator of the Effect of Stress

Research on stress has revealed that there are various personality characteristics that influence a person's susceptibility to stress. Some people appear to become more nervous or anxious when exposed to stress while others seem to thrive on extra pressure. Psychologists have proposed a construct called Hardiness that describes a theoretical "stress resistant" personality. According to this theory, people that are "Hardy" are committed to their life (Commitment), take control over their situation (Control) and see stressors as challenges to overcome rather than opportunities for failure (Challenge). These traits may mediate a person's response to stress in several ways:

Appraisal of Stress: Appraisal is an important part of the stress process. Individuals who perceive stress more positively are generally less susceptible to the effects of stress. Hardy individuals typically perceive situations as a challenge rather than a threat.

Coping Style: Coping style is an important determinant of an individual's reaction to stress. In general, active coping techniques (planning, information seeking) are more effective than more passive techniques (denial, wishful thinking). Studies have found Hardy individuals more likely to use active strategies and less likely to use passive ones.

Responsiveness to Stress: The way a person responds physiologically to stress can impact the effect it has on health. Studies have demonstrated that Hardy individuals had lower responses to an evaluative threats or challenging tasks. Thus, a Hardy individual gets less anxious or aroused from typically stressful conditions.

A number of studies have examined the relationships between hardiness and various health-related outcomes. While it has been difficult to examine these effects, individuals high in hardiness have tended to respond better to stress.

Visit the Hardiness Institute (http://www.hardinessinstitute.com) to learn more about Hardiness.

• Click here to directly access an informational page on Hardiness.


• Click here to view a reference list of research on Hardiness.

Web16-04: Web Resources

ULifeline.org – ulifeline.org

American Academy of Family Physicians – http://familydoctor.org

American Institute of Stress - www.stress.org

American Psychological Association - www.apa.org

International Stress Management Association – www.isma-usa.org/about.htm

Medicinenet.com – http://www.medicinenet.com

Medline Plus Health Information  – http://www.medlineplus/

National Center for Post Traumatic Stress Disorder – www.ncptsd.org

National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health – www.cdc.gov/niosh/stresswk.html

National Institute of Mental Health – www.nimh.nih.gov  

National Mental Health Information Center – www.mentalhealth.samhsa.gov  

Stress and Health – www.stress-and-health.com  

WebMD – www.webmd.com  

Web16-05: Supplemental Readings

References from 7e/14e:

Benson, H. 2006. Mind-Body Pioneer. Psychology Today. Available on the web at www.psychologytoday.com, click stress.

Blonna, R. 2007. Coping with Stress in a Changing World (4^th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.

Epel, E. S., Blackburn, E.H., Lin, J., Dhabhar, F.S, Adler, N.E., Morrow, J.D., & Cawthon, R.  (2004). Accelerated telomere shortening in response to exposure to life stress. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 101: 17312-17315.

Gotlieb, I. H. and B. Weaton (eds.). 2006. Stress and Adversity over the Life Course: Trajectories and Turning Points. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Greenberg, J. S. 2006. Comprehensive Stress Management (9^th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.

Kircaldy, B. D., Shephard, R. J., and Furnham, A. F. (2002). The influence of type A behavior and locus of control upon job satisfaction and occupational health. Personality and Individual Differences 33: 1361-1371.

Lane, J., Flint, J., & Danks, C. (2004). The development of a rapid diagnostic test for cortisol in the saliva of pigs. The International Journal of Applied Research in Veterinary Medicine 2: 61-66.

Lazarus, R. S. and R. Lazarus. 2006. Stress and Emotion: A New Synthesis. New York: Springer Publishing Company.

Romas, J. A. and M. Sharma. 2007. Practical Stress Management: A Comprehensive Workbookfor Managing Change and Promoting Health (4^th ed.). San Francisco: Benjamin Cummings.

Schommer, N. C., Hellhammer, D. H., and Kirschbaum, C. (2003). Dissociation between reactivity of the Hypothalamus-Pituitary-Adrenal axis and the Sympathetic-Adrenal-Medullary system to repeated psychosocial stress. Psychosomatic Medicine 65: 450-460.

Suls, J., and Bunde, J. (2005). Anger, anxiety, and depression as risk factors for cardiovascular disease: The problems and implications of overlapping affective dispositions. Psychological Bulletin 131: 260-300.

Taylor, S. E. 2006. Health Psychology (4^th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.

References from Past Editions:

• A Guide to Managing Stress. Daly City, CA: Krames Communications, n.d.
• American Institute of Stress. "Signs and Symptoms of Stress." In Aviation Medical Bulletin. Atlanta, GA: Harvey W. Watt and Co., March, 1991.
• Anderson, M.B., & J.M. Williams. "A Model of Stress and Athletic Injury: Prediction and Prevention." Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology 10(1988):294–306.
• Benson, H. Beyond the Relaxation Response. New York: Berkeley Publishing Group, 1985.
• Blonna, R. Coping with Stress in a Changing World. St. Louis, MO:WCB/McGraw-Hill, 1996.
• Coleman, D., & J. Gurin. Eds. Mind/Body Medicine. Consumer Reports Books, Fairfield, OH:1993.
• Corbin, D. E. (ed.). Perspectives: Stress Management. Boulder, CO: Coursewise Publishing Co, 1999.
• Csikszentmihalyi, M., and R. Graef. "Feeling Free." Psychology Today 12(1979):84.
• Drossman, D. A. et al. "Effects of Coping on Health Outcomes Among Women with Gastrointestinal Disorders. Psychosomatic Medicine. 62(2)(2000),:309-317.
• Fredrickson, B. Cultivating Positive Emotions to Optimize Health and Well Being. Prevention and Treatment. 3 (2000).
• Gallup, G., & F. Newport. "Despite Dissatisfaction with Way Things Are Going, Americans Remain Positive." The Gallup Poll Monthly 298(1990):10.
• Girdano, D. & Everly, G. Controlling Stress and Tension. (6^th Ed.) Needham, MA: Allyn and Bacon, 2000.
• Greenberg, J.S. Coping With Stress: A Practical Guide. 3d ed. Dubuque, IA: Wm. C. Brown Publishers, 1990.
• Greenberg, J.S. Comprehensive Stress Management. 5th ed. Dubuque, IA: Brown &Benchmark Publishers, 1996.
• Hauri, P., et al. "Slumber Strategies." Health 22(1990):57.
• Hjelm, J. & R. C. Johnson. Spiritual Health: "An Annotated Bibliography" Journal of Health Education. 27(1996), 248-252.
• Hugick, L., & J. Leonard. "Job Dissatisfaction Grows; 'Moonlighting' on the Rise." The Gallup Poll Monthly 312(1991):2.
• Jacobson, E. You Must Relax. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1978.
• Landers, D. The Influence of Exercise on Mental Health. In Corbin, C. B. & Pangrazi, R. P. (ed.). Towards a Better Understanding of Physical Fitness and Activity. Scottsdale, AZ: Holcomb-Hathaway,  1999, Chapter 16.
• Lazarus, R.S. "Theory-Based Stress Measurement." Psychological Inquiry 1(1990), 3-13.
• Leatz, C.A. Unwinding. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1981.
• Little, D.R. Easy Stress-Reducing Strategies. North Hollywood, CA: D.R. Little and Health Fair Expo, 1992.
• Maddi, S.R. & D. M. Khoshaba. "Hardiness and Mental Health" Journal of Personality Assessment. 63(1994), 265-274.
• Morgan, W.P., & S.E. Goldston, eds. Exercise and Mental Health. New York: Hemisphere, 1987.
• North, T., et al. "Effect of Exercise on Depression." Exercise and Sport Sciences Reviews 18(1990):379.
• Ortal, M. & Sherman, C. Exercise Against Depression. Physician and Sportsmedicine. 26(10)(1998):55.
• Osness, W. & L. Mulligan. Physical Activity and Depression in Older Adults. Journal of Physical Education Recreation and Dance. 69(9)(1998):16.
• Paliwal, Y., et al. "Stress and Cardiovascular Disease." Hospital Medicine n.d., 12, 16.
• Rosenfeld, I. For A Good Nights Sleep. Parade. October 25 (1998):8.
• Seligman, M. E. What You Can Change and What You Can't: The Complete Guide to Successful Self-Improvement. New York: Knopf, 1994.
• Selye, H. "Secret of Coping with Stress." U.S. News and World Report, March 21, 1977, p.51.
• Selye, H. The Stress of Life. 2d ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1978.
• Seward, B.L. Managing Stress. Boston: Jones & Bartlett Publishers, 1994.
• Siegel, B.S. Love, Medicine, and Miracles. New York: Harper and Row, 1986.
• U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Healthy People 2010 Objectives: Draft for Comment. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 1998, Objectives Chapter 23: Mental Health and Mental Disorders.
• Weibe, D.J. "Hardiness and Stress Moderation: A Test of Proposed Mechanisms." Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60(1991), 89-99.