| alternative explanation | Part of causal inference; a potential alternative cause of an observed relationship between variables.
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| covariation of cause and effect | Part of causal inference; observing that a change in one variable is accompanied by a change in a second variable.
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| empiricism | Use of objective observations to answer a question about the nature of behavior.
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| peer review | The process of judging the scientific merit of research through review by peers of the researcher—other scientists with the expertise to evaluate the research.
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| program evaluation | Research designed to evaluate programs (e.g., social reforms, innovations) that are designed to produce certain changes or outcomes in a target population.
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| pseudoscience | Claims that are made on the basis of evidence that is designed to appear scientific; such evidence is not based on the principles of the scientific method, however.
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| temporal precedence | Part of causal inference; the cause precedes the effect in a time sequence.
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