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accommodation  Piagetian concept of adjusting schemes to fit new information and experiences.
acculturation  Cultural changes that occur when one culture comes in contact with another culture.
active (niche-picking) genotype-environment correlations  Correlations that exist when children seek out environments they find compatible and stimulating.
adolescence  The developmental period of transition from childhood to early adulthood, entered at approximately 10 to 12 years of age and ending at 18 or 19 years of age.
adolescent egocentrism  The heightened self-consciousness of adolescents, which is reflected in adolescents' beliefs that others are as interested in them as they are in themselves, and in adolescents' sense of personal uniqueness and invulnerability.
adoption study  A study in which investigators seek to discover whether, in behavior and psychological characteristics, adopted children are more like their adoptive parents, who provided a home environment, or more like their biological parents, who contributed their heredity. Another form of the adoption study is one that compares adoptive and biological siblings.
affordances  Opportunities for interaction offered by objects that are necessary to perform activities.
afterbirth  The third stage of birth, when the placenta, umbilical cord, and other membranes are detached and expelled.
altruism  An unselfish interest in helping another person.
amnion  Prenatal life-support system that is a bag or envelope that contains a clear fluid in which the developing embryo floats.
amygdala  The seat of emotions in the brain.
androgens  Hormones, the most important of which is testosterone, that promote the development of male genitals and secondary sex characteristics.
androgens  The main class of male sex hormones.
androgyny  The presence of masculine and feminine characteristics in the same person.
anger cry  A cry similar to the basic cry but with more excess air forced through the vocal cords.
animism  A facet of preoperational thought: the belief that inanimate objects have lifelike qualities and are capable of action.
A-not-B error  Also called A–<a onClick="window.open('/olcweb/cgi/pluginpop.cgi?it=jpg::::/sites/dl/free/0073532088/876505/B_101.jpg','popWin', 'width=NaN,height=NaN,resizable,scrollbars');" href="#"><img valign="absmiddle" height="16" width="16" border="0" src="/olcweb/styles/shared/linkicons/image.gif"> (0.0K)</a> error, this occurs when infants make the mistake of selecting the familiar hiding place (A) rather than the new hiding place (<a onClick="window.open('/olcweb/cgi/pluginpop.cgi?it=jpg::::/sites/dl/free/0073532088/876505/B_101.jpg','popWin', 'width=NaN,height=NaN,resizable,scrollbars');" href="#"><img valign="absmiddle" height="16" width="16" border="0" src="/olcweb/styles/shared/linkicons/image.gif"> (0.0K)</a>) as they progress into substage 4 in Piaget's sensorimotor stage.
Apgar Scale  A widely used method to assess the health of newborns at one and five minutes after birth. The Apgar Scale evaluates infants' heart rate, respiratory effort, muscle tone, body color, and reflex irritability.
aphasia  A disorder resulting from brain damage to Broca's area or Wernicke's area that involves a loss or impairment of the ability to use or comprehend words.
Asperger syndrome  A relatively mild autism spectrum disorder in which the child has relatively good verbal skills, milder nonverbal language problems, and a restricted range of interests and relationships.
assimilation  Piagetian concept of the incorporation of new information into existing knowledge.
attachment  A close emotional bond between two people.
attention  Concentrating and focusing mental resources.
attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)  A disability in which children consistently show one or more of the following characteristics: (1) inattention, (2) hyperactivity, and (3) impulsivity.
authoritarian parenting  A restrictive, punitive style in which the parent exhorts the child to follow the parent's directions and to respect their work and effort. Firm limits and controls are placed on the child, and little verbal exchange is allowed. This style is associated with children's social incompetence, including a lack of initiative and weak communication skills.
authoritative parenting  This style encourages children to be independent but still places limits and controls on their actions. Extensive verbal give-and-take is allowed, and parents are warm and nurturant toward the child. This style is associated with children's social competence, including being achievement oriented and self-reliant.
autism spectrum disorders (ASDs)  Also called pervasive developmental disorders, they range from the severe disorder labeled autistic disorder to the milder disorder called Asperger syndrome. Children with these disorders are characterized by problems in social interaction, verbal and nonverbal communication, and repetitive behaviors.
autistic disorder  A severe developmental autism spectrum disorder that has its onset in the first three years of life and includes deficiencies in social relationships; abnormalities in communication; and restricted, repetitive, and stereotyped patterns of behavior.
automaticity  The ability to process information with little or no effort.
autonomous morality  The second stage of moral development in Piaget's theory, displayed by older children (about 10 years of age and older). The child becomes aware that rules and laws are created by people and that, in judging an action, one should consider the actor's intentions as well as the consequences.
average children  Children who receive an average number of both positive and negative nominations from their peers.
basic cry  A rhythmic pattern usually consisting of a cry, a briefer silence, a shorter inspiratory whistle that is higher pitched than the main cry, and then a brief rest before the next cry.
Bayley Scales of Infant Development  Initially created by Nancy Bayley, these scales are widely used in assessing infant development. The current version has five scales: cognitive, language, motor, socioemotional, and adaptive.
behavior genetics  The field that seeks to discover the influence of heredity and environment on individuals differences in human traits and development.
biological processes  Changes in an individual's body.
blastocyst  The inner layer of cells that develops during the germinal period. These cells later develop into the embryo.
bonding  The formation of a close connection, especially a physical bond, between parents and their newborn in the period shortly after birth.
brainstorming  A technique in which children are encouraged to come up with creative ideas in a group, play off one another's ideas, and say practically whatever comes to mind.
Brazelton Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale (NBAS)  A measure that is used in the first month of life to assess the newborn's neurological development, reflexes, and reactions to people and objects.
breech position  The baby's position in the uterus that causes the buttocks to be the first part to emerge from the vagina.
Broca's area  An area of the brain's left frontal lobe that is involved in speech production and grammatical processing.
Bronfenbrenner's ecological theory  An environmental systems theory that focuses on five environmental systems: microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, and chronosystem.
care perspective  The moral perspective of Carol Gilligan, in which people are assessed in terms of their connectedness with others and the quality of their interpersonal communication, relationships with others, and concern for others.
case study  An in-depth look at a single individual.
centration  Focusing attention on one characteristic to the exclusion of all others.
cephalocaudal pattern  The sequence in which the fastest growth occurs at the top of the body—the head—with physical growth in size, weight, and feature differentiation gradually working from top to bottom.
cesarean delivery  Removal of the baby from the mother's uterus through an incision made in her abdomen.
character education  A direct moral education approach that involves teaching students a basic "moral literacy" to prevent them from engaging in immoral behavior or doing harm to themselves or others.
child-centered kindergarten  Education that involves the whole child by considering both the child's physical, cognitive, and socioemotional development and the child's needs, interests, and learning styles.
child-directed speech  Language spoken in a higher pitch than normal, with simple words and sentences.
chromosomes  Threadlike structures that come in 23 pairs, with one member of each pair coming from each parent. Chromosomes contain the genetic substance DNA.
cliques  Small groups that range from 2 to about 12 individuals and average about 5 or 6 individuals. Cliques can form because of friendship or because individuals engage in similar activities, and members usually are of the same sex and about the same age.
cognitive moral education  Education based on the belief that students should learn to value things like democracy and justice as their moral reasoning develops; Kohlberg's theory has been the basis for many of the cognitive moral education approaches.
cognitive processes  Changes in an individual's thinking, intelligence, and language.
collectivism  Emphasizing values that serve the group by subordinating personal goals to preserve group integrity, interdependence of members, and harmonious relationships.
commitment  Personal investment in identity.
concrete operational stage  Piaget's third stage, which lasts from approximately 7 to 11 years of age, when children can perform concrete operations, and logical reasoning replaces intuitive reasoning as long as the reasoning can be applied to specific or concrete examples.
conduct disorder  Age-inappropriate actions and attitudes that violate family expectations, society's norms, and the personal or property rights of others.
connectedness  Consists of two dimensions: mutuality, sensitivity to and respect for others' views; and permeability, openness to others' views.
conservation  The idea that altering an object's or substance's appearance does not change its basic properties.
constructive play  Play that combines sensorimotor/practice play with symbolic representation of ideas. Constructive play occurs when children engage in selfregulated creation or construction of a product or a solution.
constructivist approach  A learner-centered approach that emphasizes the importance of individuals actively constructing their knowledge and understanding, with guidance from the teacher.
context  The settings, influenced by historical, economic, social, and cultural factors, in which development occurs.
continuity-discontinuity issue  Question about whether development involves gradual, cumulative change (continuity) or distinct stages (discontinuity).
controversial children  Children who are frequently identified both as someone's best friend and as being disliked.
conventional reasoning  The second, or intermediate, level in Kohlberg's theory of moral development. At this level, individuals abide by certain standards (internal), but they are the standards of others such as parents or the laws of society (external). The conventional level consists of two stages: mutual interpersonal expectations, relationships, and interpersonal conformity (stage 3) and social systems morality (stage 4).
convergent thinking  Thinking that produces one correct answer; characteristic of the kind of thinking required on conventional intelligence tests.
coparenting  Support parents provide for each other in jointly raising children.
core knowledge approach  States that infants are born with domain-specific innate knowledge systems, such as those involving space, number sense, object permanence, and language.
corpus callosum  Brain area where fibers connect the brain's left and right hemispheres.
correlational research  Research in which the goal is to describe the strength of the relationship between two or more events or characteristics.
correlation coefficient  A number based on statistical analysis that is used to describe the degree of association between two variables.
creativity  The ability to think in novel and unusual ways and come up with unique solutions to problems.
crisis  A period of identity development during which the adolescent is choosing among meaningful alternatives.
critical thinking  Thinking reflectively and productively, and evaluating the evidence.
cross-cultural studies  Comparisons of one culture with one or more other cultures. These provide information about the degree to which children's development is similar, or universal, across cultures, and to the degree to which it is culture-specific.
cross-cultural studies  Research that compares a culture with one or more other cultures, provides information about other cultures, and examines the role of culture in children's development.
cross-sectional approach  A research strategy in which individuals of different ages are compared at the same point in time.
crowds  The crowd is a larger group structure than a clique. Adolescents usually are members of a crowd based on reputation and may or may not spend much time together. Many crowds are defined by the activities in which adolescents engage.
culture-fair tests  Intelligence tests that aim to avoid cultural bias.
culture  The behavior patterns, beliefs, and all other products of a group that are passed on from generation to generation.
culture  The behavior, patterns, beliefs, and all other products of a particular group of people that are passed on from generation to generation.
descriptive research  Research that involves observing and recording behavior.
developmentally appropriate practice  Education that focuses on the typical developmental patterns of children (age appropriateness) and the uniqueness of each child (individual-appropriateness). Such practice contrasts with developmentally inappropriate practice, which relies on abstract paper-and-pencil activities presented to large groups of young children.
developmental quotient (DQ)  An overall developmental score that combines subscores on motor, language, adaptive, and personal-social domains in the Gesell assessment of infants.
development  The pattern of movement or change that begins at conception and continues through the life span.
dialect  A variety of language that is distinguished by its vocabulary, grammar, or pronunciation.
difficult child  A temperament style in which the child tends to react negatively and cry frequently, engages in irregular daily routines, and is slow to accept new experiences.
direct instruction approach  A teacher-centered approach characterized by teacher direction and control, mastery of academic material, high expectations for students' progress, and maximum time spent on learning tasks.
dishabituation  The recovery of a habituated response after a change in stimulation.
divergent thinking  Thinking that produces many answers to the same question; characteristic of creativity.
divided attention  Concentrating on more than one activity at the same time.
DNA  A complex molecule that contains genetic information.
doula  A caregiver who provides continuous physical, emotional, and educational support for the mother before, during, and after childbirth.
Down syndrome  A chromosomally transmitted form of mental retardation, caused by the presence of an extra copy of chromosome 21.
dual-process model  States that decision-making is influenced by two systems, one analytical and one experiential, that compete with each other. In this model, it is the experiential system—monitoring and managing actual experiences—that benefits adolescent decision making.
dynamic systems theory  A theory, proposed by Esther Thelen, that seeks to explain how motor behaviors are assembled for perceiving and acting.
dyscalculia  Also known as developmental arithmetic disorder; a learning disability that involves difficulty in math computation.
dysgraphia  A learning disability that involves difficulty in handwriting.
dyslexia  A category of learning disabilities involving a severe impairment in the ability to read and spell.
early childhood  The developmental period that extends from the end of infancy to about 5 or 6 years of age, sometimes called the preschool years.
early-later experience issue  Controversy regarding the degree to which early experiences (especially during infancy) or later experiences are the key determinants of children's development.
easy child  A temperament style in which the child is generally in a positive mood, quickly establishes regular routines, and adapts easily to new experiences.
eclectic theoretical orientation  An orientation that does not follow any one theoretical approach but rather selects from each theory whatever is considered its best aspects.
ecological view  The view, proposed by the Gibsons, that people directly perceive information in the world around them. Perception brings people in contact with the environment in order to interact with it and adapt to it.
egocentrism  An important feature of preoperational thought: the inability to distinguish between one's own and someone else's perspective.
embryonic period  The period of prenatal development that occurs two to eight weeks after conception. During the embryonic period, the rate of cell differentiation intensifies, support systems for the cells form, and organs appear.
emotional and behavioral disorders  Serious, persistent problems that involve relationships, aggression, depression, fears associated with personal or school matters, as well as other inappropriate socioemotional characteristics.
emotional intelligence  The ability to perceive and express emotion accurately and adaptively, to understand emotion and emotional knowledge, to use feelings to facilitate thought, and to manage emotions in oneself and others.
emotion  Feeling, or affect, that occurs when people are engaged in an interaction that is important to them, especially one that influences their well-being.
empathy  Reacting to another's feelings with an emotional response that is similar to the other's feelings.
encoding  The mechanism by which information gets into memory.
epigenetic view  Emphasizes that development is the result of an ongoing, bidirectional interchange between heredity and environment.
equilibration  A mechanism that Piaget proposed to explain how children shift from one stage of thought to the next. The shift occurs as children experience cognitive conflict, or disequilibrium, in trying to understand the world. Eventually, they resolve the conflict and reach a balance, or equilibrium, of thought.
Erikson's theory  Description of eight stages of human development. Each stage consists of a unique developmental task that confronts individuals with a crisis that must be resolved.
estradiol  An estrogen that is a key hormone in girls' pubertal development.
estrogens  Hormones, the most important of which is estradiol, that influence the development of female physical sex characteristics and help regulate the menstrual cycle.
estrogens  The main class of female sex hormones.
ethnic gloss  Use of an ethnic label such as African American or Latino in a superficial way that portrays an ethnic group as being more homogeneous than it really is.
ethnic identity  An enduring aspect of the self that includes a sense of membership in an ethnic group, along with the attitudes and feelings related to that membership.
ethnicity  A characteristic based on cultural heritage, nationality, race, religion, and language.
ethnicity  A dimension of culture based on cultural heritage, nationality, race, religion, and language.
ethology  Stresses that behavior is strongly influenced by biology, is tied to evolution, and is characterized by critical or sensitive periods.
evocative genotype-environment correlations  Correlations that exist when the child's genotype elicits certain types of physical and social environments.
evolutionary psychology  Branch of psychology that emphasizes the importance of adaptation, reproduction, and "survival of the fittest" in shaping behavior.
executive attention  Involves action planning, allocating attention to goals, error detection and compensation, monitoring progress on tasks, and dealing with novel or difficult circumstances.
expanding  Restating, in a linguistically sophisticated form, what a child has said.
experiment  A carefully regulated procedure in which one or more of the factors believed to influence the behavior being studied are manipulated while all other factors are held constant.
explicit memory  Conscious memory of facts and experiences.
extrinsic motivation  Response to external incentives such as rewards and punishments.
fast mapping  A process that helps to explain how young children learn the connection between a word and its referent so quickly.
fertilization  A stage in reproduction whereby an egg and a sperm fuse to create a single cell, called a zygote.
fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASD)  A cluster of abnormalities and problems that appear in the offspring of mothers who drink alcohol heavily during pregnancy.
fetal period  The period from two months after conception until birth, lasting about seven months in typical pregnancies.
fine motor skills  Motor skills that involve more finely tuned movements, such as finger dexterity.
forgiveness  An aspect of prosocial behavior that occurs when an injured person releases the injurer from possible behavioral retaliation.
formal operational stage  Piaget's fourth and final stage, which occurs between the ages of 11 and 15, when individuals move beyond concrete experiences and think in more abstract and logical ways.
fragile X syndrome  A genetic disorder involving an abnormality in the X chromosome, which becomes constricted and often breaks.
fuzzy trace theory  States that memory is best understood by considering two types of memory representations: (1) verbatim memory trace; and (2) fuzzy trace, or gist. According to this theory, older children's better memory is attributed to the fuzzy traces created by extracting the gist of information.
games  Activities engaged in for pleasure that include rules and often competition with one or more individuals.
gender identity  The sense of being male or female, which most children acquire by the time they are 3 years old.
gender role  A set of expectations that prescribes how females or males should think, act, and feel.
gender schema theory  According to this theory, gender typing emerges as children gradually develop schemas of what is gender-appropriate and gender-inappropriate in their culture.
gender stereotypes  Broad categories that reflect impressions and widely held beliefs about what behavior is appropriate for females and males.
gender  The characteristics of people as males and females.
gender typing  Acquisition of a traditional masculine or feminine role.
gene × environment (G × E) interaction  The interaction of a specific measured variation in the DNA and a specific measured aspect of the environment
genes  Units of hereditary information composed of DNA. Genes direct cells to reproduce themselves and manufacture the proteins that maintain life.
genotype  A person's genetic heritage; the actual genetic material.
germinal period  The period of prenatal development that takes place in the first two weeks after conception. It includes the creation of the zygote, continued cell division, and the attachment of the zygote to the uterine wall.
giftedness  Possession of above-average intelligence (an IQ of 130 or higher) and/or superior talent for something.
goodness of fit  The match between a child's temperament and the environmental demands the child must cope with.
grasping reflex  A neonatal reflex that occurs when something touches the infant's palms. The infant responds by grasping tightly.
gratitude  A feeling of thankfulness and appreciation, especially in response to someone doing something kind or helpful.
gross motor skills  Motor skills that involve large-muscle activities, such as moving one's arms and walking.
habituation  Decreased responsiveness to a stimulus after repeated presentations of the stimulus.
helpless orientation  An orientation in which one seems trapped by the experience of difficulty and attributes one's difficulty to a lack of ability.
heritability  The fraction of the variance in a population that is attributed to genetics.
heteronomous morality  The first stage of moral development in Piaget's theory, occurring from 4 to 7 years of age. Justice and rules are conceived of as unchangeable properties of the world, removed from the control of people.
hidden curriculum  The pervasive moral atmosphere that characterizes each school.
horizontal décalage  Piaget's concept that similar abilities do not appear at the same time within a stage of development.
hormones  Powerful chemical substances secreted by the endocrine glands and carried through the body by the bloodstream.
hypotheses  Specific assumptions and predictions that can be tested to determine their accuracy.
hypothetical-deductive reasoning  Piaget's formal operational concept that adolescents have the cognitive ability to develop hypotheses about ways to solve problems and can systematically deduce which is the best path to follow in solving the problem.
identity achievement  Marcia's term for the status of individuals who have undergone a crisis and made a commitment.
identity diffusion  Marcia's term for the status of individuals who have not yet experienced a crisis (that is, they have not yet explored meaningful alternatives) or made any commitments.
identity foreclosure  Marcia's term for the status of individuals who have made a commitment but have not experienced a crisis.
identity moratorium  Marcia's term for the status of individuals who are in the midst of a crisis but whose commitments either are absent or are only vaguely defined.
identity versus identity confusion  Erikson's fifth developmental stage, which individuals experience during the adolescent years. At this time, adolescents examine who they are, what they are all about, and where they are going in life.
imaginary audience  The aspect of adolescent egocentrism that involves attention-getting behavior motivated by a desire to be noticed, visible, and "onstage."
immanent justice  Piaget's concept of the childhood expectation that if a rule is broken, punishment will be meted out immediately.
implicit memory  Memory without conscious recollection; memory of skills and routine procedures that are performed automatically.
inclusion  Educating a child with special educational needs full-time in the regular classroom.
index offenses  Criminal acts, such as robbery, rape, and homicide, whether they are committed by juveniles or adults.
individualism  Giving priority to personal goals rather than to group goals; emphasizing values that serve the self, such as feeling good, striving for personal distinction and recognition for achievement, and asserting independence.
individuality  Consists of two dimensions: selfassertion, the ability to have and communicate a point of view; and separateness, the use of communication patterns to express how one is different from others.
individualized education program (IEP)  A written statement that spells out a program tailored to the needs of a child with a disability.
induction  A discipline technique in which a parent uses reasoning and explains how the child's actions are likely to affect others.
indulgent parenting  A style in which parents are highly involved with their children but place few demands or controls on them. This is associated with children's social incompetence, especially a lack of selfcontrol and a lack of respect for others.
infancy  The developmental period that extends from birth to about 18 to 24 months.
infinite generativity  The ability to produce an endless number of meaningful sentences using a finite set of words and rules.
information-processing approach  An approach that focuses on the ways children process information about their world—how they manipulate information, monitor it, and create strategies to deal with it.
information-processing theory  Emphasizes that individuals manipulate information, monitor it, and strategize about it. Central to this theory are the processes of memory and thinking.
innate goodness view  The idea, presented by Swiss-born French philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau, that children are inherently good.
insecure avoidant babies  Babies who show insecurity by avoiding the mother.
insecure disorganized babies  Babies who show insecurity by being disorganized and disoriented.
insecure resistant babies  Babies who might cling to the caregiver, then resist her by fighting against the closeness, perhaps by kicking or pushing away.
intelligence quotient (IQ)  An individual's mental age divided by chronological age and multiplied by 100; devised in 1912 by William Stern.
intelligence  The ability to solve problems and to adapt to and learn from experiences.
intermodal perception  The ability to relate and integrate information about two or more sensory modalities, such as vision and hearing.
Internet  Worldwide computer-mediated communication system that provides a vast array of information.
intimacy in friendship  Self-disclosure or the sharing of private thoughts.
intrinsic motivation  Internal motivational factors such as self-determination, curiosity, challenge, and effort.
intuitive thought substage  The second substage of preoperational thought, occurring between approximately 4 and 7 years of age, when children begin to use primitive reasoning.
joint attention  Individuals focusing on the same object or event; requires the ability to track another's behavior, one person directing another's attention, and reciprocal interaction.
justice perspective  A moral perspective that focuses on the rights of the individual; individuals independently make moral decisions.
juvenile delinquency  Refers to a great variety of behaviors by an adolescent, ranging from unacceptable behavior to breaking the law.
kangaroo care  Treatment for preterm infants that involves skin-to-skin contact.
Klinefelter syndrome  A chromosomal disorder in which males have an extra X chromosome, making them XXY instead of XY.
kwashiorkor  Severe malnutrition caused by a protein-deficient diet, causing the feet and abdomen to swell with water.
labeling  Identifying the names of objects.
laboratory  A controlled setting from which many of the complex factors of the "real world" have been removed.
language acquisition device (LAD)  Chomsky's term that describes a biological endowment that enables the child to detect the features and rules of language, including phonology, syntax, and semantics.
language  A form of communication, whether spoken, written, or signed, that is based on a system of symbols.
lateralization  Specialization of function in one hemisphere of the cerebral cortex or the other.
learning disabilities  Disabilities involving understanding or using spoken or written language. The difficulty can appear in listening, thinking, reading, writing, spelling, or mathematics. To be classified as a learning disability, the problem must not be primarily the result of visual, hearing, or motor disabilities; mental retardation; emotional disorders; or environmental, cultural, or economic disadvantage.
least restrictive environment (LRE)  The concept that a child with a disability must be educated in a setting that is similar to classrooms in which children without a disability are educated.
longitudinal approach  A research strategy in which the same individuals are studied over a period of time, usually several years.
long-term memory  A relatively permanent and unlimited type of memory.
love withdrawal  A discipline technique in which a parent withholds attention or love from the child in an effort to control the child's behavior.
low birth weight infant  Infant that weighs less than 5½ pounds at birth.
marasmus  Severe malnutrition caused by an insufficient protein-calorie intake, resulting in a shrunken, elderly appearance.
mastery motivation  An orientation in which one is task oriented, focusing on learning strategies and the achievement process rather than ability or the outcome.
meiosis  A specialized form of cell division that forms eggs and sperm (or gametes).
memory  Retention of information over time.
menarche  A girl's first menstruation.
mental age (MA)  An individual's level of mental development relative to others.
mental retardation  A condition of limited mental ability in which the individual (1) has a low IQ, usually below 70 on a traditional intelligence test; (2) has difficulty adapting to everyday life; and (3) has an onset of these characteristics by age 18.
metacognition  Cognition about cognition, or "knowing about knowing."
metalinguistic awareness  Knowledge about language.
metamemory  Knowledge about memory.
metaphor  An implied comparison between two unlike things.
middle and late childhood  The developmental period that extends from about 6 to 11 years of age, sometimes called the elementary school years.
mindfulness  Being alert, mentally present, and cognitively flexible while going through life's everyday activities and tasks.
mindset  Dweck's concept that refers to the cognitive view individuals develop for themselves; individuals have either a fixed or growth mindset.
mitosis  Cellular reproduction in which the cell's nucleus duplicates itself with two new cells being formed, each containing the same DNA as the parent cell, arranged in the same 23 pairs of chromosomes.
Montessori approach  An educational philosophy in which children are given considerable freedom and spontaneity in choosing activities and are allowed to move from one activity to another as they desire.
moral development  Changes in thoughts, feelings, and behaviors regarding standards of right and wrong.
moral exemplars  People who have lived extraordinary lives. Emphasizes the development of personality, identity, character, and virtue to a level that reflects moral excellence and commitment.
moral identity  The aspect of personality that is present when individuals have moral notions and commitments that are central to their lives.
Moro reflex  A neonatal startle response that occurs in reaction to a sudden, intense noise or movement. When startled, the newborn arches its back, throws its head back, and flings out its arms and legs. Then the newborn rapidly closes its arms and legs to the center of the body.
morphology  The rule system that governs how words are formed in a language.
multiple developmental trajectories  Concept that adults follow one trajectory and children and adolescents another one; understanding how these trajectories mesh is important.
myelination  The process of encasing axons with a myelin sheath that increases the speed of processing information.
natural childbirth  This method attempts to reduce the mother's pain by decreasing her fear through education about childbirth and relaxation techniques during delivery.
naturalistic observation  Behavioral observation that takes place in real-world settings.
nature-nurture issue  Debate about whether development is primarily influenced by nature or nurture. The "nature" proponents claim biological inheritance is the most important influence on development; the "nurture" proponents claim that environmental experiences are the most important.
neglected children  Children who are infrequently identified as a best friend but are not disliked by their peers.
neglectful parenting  A style in which the parent is very uninvolved in the child's life. It is associated with children's social incompetence, especially a lack of selfcontrol and poor self-esteem.
Neonatal Intensive Care Unit Network Neurobehavioral Scale (NNNS)  An "offspring" of the NBAS, the NNNS provides an assessment of the "at-risk" newborn's behavior, neurological and stress responses, and regulatory capacities.
neo-Piagetians  Developmentalists who have elaborated on Piaget's theory, believing that children's cognitive development is more specific in many respects than Piaget thought and giving more emphasis to how children use memory, attention, and strategies to process information.
neurons  Nerve cells, which handle information processing at the cellular level in the brain.
nonshared environmental experiences  The child's own unique experiences, both within the family and outside the family, that are not shared by another sibling. Thus, experiences occurring within the family can be part of the "nonshared environment."
normal distribution  A symmetrical distribution with a majority of the cases falling in the middle of the possible range of scores and few scores appearing toward the extremes of the range.
object permanence  The Piagetian term for one of an infant's most important accomplishments: understanding that objects and events continue to exist even when they cannot directly be seen, heard, or touched.
operations  Internalized actions that allow children to do mentally what before they had done only physically. Operations also are reversible mental actions.
organization  Piaget's concept of grouping isolated behaviors into a higher-order, more smoothly functioning cognitive system; the grouping or arranging of items into categories.
organogenesis  Organ formation that takes place during the first two months of prenatal development.
original sin view  Advocated during the Middle Ages, the belief that children were born into the world as evil beings and were basically bad.
pain cry  A sudden appearance of loud crying without preliminary moaning, and a long initial cry followed by an extended period of breath holding.
passive genotype-environment correlations  Correlations that exist when the natural parents, who are genetically related to the child, provide a rearing environment for the child.
peers  Children who share the same age or maturity level.
perception  The interpretation of sensation.
performance orientation  An orientation in which one focuses on winning rather than achievement outcomes, and happiness is thought to result from winning.
personal fable  The part of adolescent egocentrism that involves an adolescent's sense of uniqueness and invincibility.
perspective taking  The ability to assume others' perspectives and understand their thoughts or feelings.
perspective taking  The ability to perceive another person's point of view.
phenotype  The way an individual's genotype is expressed in observed and measurable characteristics.
phenylketonuria (PKU)  A genetic disorder in which an individual cannot properly metabolize an amino acid. PKU is now easily detected but, if left untreated, results in mental retardation and hyperactivity.
phonics approach  An approach that emphasizes that reading instruction should focus on phonics and its basic rules for translating written symbols into sounds.
phonology  The sound system of a language, which includes the sounds used and rules about how they may be combined.
Piaget's theory  Theory stating that children actively construct their understanding of the world and go through four stages of cognitive development.
placenta  A life-support system that consists of a disk-shaped group of tissues in which small blood vessels from the mother and offspring intertwine.
play  A pleasurable activity that is engaged in for its own sake.
play therapy  Therapy that allows the child to work off frustrations and is a medium through which the therapist can analyze the child's conflicts and ways of coping with them. Children may feel less threatened and be more likely to express their true feelings in the context of play.
popular children  Children who are frequently identified as a best friend and are rarely disliked by their peers.
possible self  What an individual might become, would like to become, and is afraid of becoming.
postconventional reasoning  The third and highest level in Kohlberg's theory of moral development. At this level, morality is more internal. The postconventional level consists of two stages: social contract or utility and individual rights (stage 5) and universal ethical principles (stage 6).
postpartum depression  Characteristic of women who have such strong feelings of sadness, anxiety, or despair that they have trouble coping with daily tasks during the postpartum period.
postpartum period  The period after childbirth when the mother adjusts, both physically and psychologically, to the process of childbirth. This period lasts about six weeks or until her body has completed its adjustment and returned to a near prepregnant state.
power assertion  A discipline technique in which a parent attempts to gain control over the child or the child's resources.
practice play  Play that involves repetition of behavior when new skills are being learned or when physical or mental mastery and coordination of skills are required for games or sports. Practice play can be engaged in throughout life.
pragmatics  The appropriate use of language in different contexts.
precocious puberty  Very early onset and rapid progression of puberty.
preconventional reasoning  The lowest level in Kohlberg's theory. At this level, morality is often focused on reward and punishment. The two stages in preconventional reasoning are punishment and obedience orientation (stage 1) and individualism, instrumental purpose, and exchange (stage 2).
prefrontal cortex  The highest level of the frontal lobes that is involved in reasoning, decision making, and self-control.
prejudice  An unjustified negative attitude toward an individual because of her or his membership in a group.
prenatal period  The time from conception to birth.
preoperational stage  The second Piagetian developmental stage, which lasts from about 2 to 7 years of age, when children begin to represent the world with words, images, and drawings.
prepared childbirth  Developed by French obstetrician Ferdinand Lamaze, this childbirth strategy is similar to natural childbirth but includes a special breathing technique to control pushing in the final stages of labor and a more detailed anatomy and physiology course.
pretense/symbolic play  Play that occurs when a child transforms the physical environment into a symbol.
preterm infants  Those born before the completion of 37 weeks of gestation (the time between fertilization and birth).
primary emotions  Emotions that are present in humans and other animals, and emerge early in life; examples are joy, anger, sadness, fear, and disgust.
Project Head Start  Compensatory education designed to provide children from lowincome families the opportunity to acquire the skills and experiences important for school success.
proximodistal pattern  The sequence in which growth starts at the center of the body and moves toward the extremities.
psychoanalytic theories  Theories that describe development as primarily unconscious and heavily colored by emotion. Behavior is merely a surface characteristic, and the symbolic workings of the mind have to be analyzed to understand behavior. Early experiences with parents are emphasized.
psychoanalytic theory of gender  A theory that stems from Freud's view that preschool children develop erotic feelings toward the opposite-sex parent. Eventually these feeling cause anxiety, so that at 5 or 6 years of age, children renounce these feelings and identify with the same-sex parent, unconsciously adopting the same-sex parent's characteristics.
psychosocial moratorium  Erikson's term for the gap between childhood security and adult autonomy that adolescents experience as part of their identity exploration.
puberty  A period of rapid physical maturation involving hormonal and bodily changes that take place primarily in early adolescence.
rapport talk  The language of conversation and a way of establishing connections and negotiating relationships; more characteristic of females than of males.
recasting  Rephrasing a statement that a child has said, perhaps turning it into a question, or restating a child's immature utterance in the form of a fully grammatical utterance.
reciprocal socialization  The bidirectional process by which children socialize parents just as parents socialize them.
reflexes  Built-in reactions to stimuli.
reflexive smile  A smile that does not occur in response to external stimuli. It happens during the month after birth, usually during sleep.
rejected children  Children who are infrequently identified as a best friend and are actively disliked by their peers.
report talk  Talk that conveys information; more characteristic of males than females.
rooting reflex  A newborn's built-in reaction that occurs when the infant's cheek is stroked or the side of the mouth is touched. In response, the infant turns its head toward the side that was touched, in an apparent effort to find something to suck.
satire  The use of irony, derision, or wit to expose folly or wickedness.
scaffolding  Adjusting the level of parental guidance to fit the child's efforts, allowing children to be more skillful than they would be if they relied only on their own abilities.
scaffolding  In cognitive development, Vygotsky used this term to describe the practice of changing the level of support provided over the course of a teaching session, with the more-skilled person adjusting guidance to fit the child's current performance level.
schemas  Mental frameworks that organize concepts and information.
schema theory  States that when people reconstruct information, they fit it into information that already exists in their minds.
schemes  In Piaget's theory, actions or mental representations that organize knowledge.
scientific method  An approach that can be used to obtain accurate information by carrying out four steps: (1) conceptualize the problem, (2) collect data, (3) draw conclusions, and (4) revise research conclusions and theory.
securely attached babies  Babies who use the caregiver as a secure base from which to explore the environment.
selective attention  Focusing on a specific aspect of experience that is relevant while ignoring others that are irrelevant.
self-concept  Domain-specific selfevaluations.
self-conscious emotions  Emotions that require self-awareness, especially consciousness and a sense of "me"; examples include jealousy, empathy, and embarrassment.
self-efficacy  The belief that one can master a situation and produce favorable outcomes.
self-esteem  The global evaluative dimension of the self; also called self-worth or self-image.
self-understanding  A child's cognitive representation of the self—the substance and content of a child's self-conceptions.
semantics  The meaning of words and sentences.
sensation  Reaction that occurs when information contacts sensory receptors—the eyes, ears, tongue, nostrils, and skin.
sensorimotor play  Behavior that allows infants to derive pleasure from exercising their existing sensorimotor schemes.
sensorimotor stage  The first of Piaget's stages, which lasts from birth to about 2 years of age; infants construct an understanding of the world by coordinating sensory experiences (such as seeing and hearing) with motoric actions.
separation protest  Occurs when infants experience a fear of being separated from a caregiver, which results in crying when the caregiver leaves.
seriation  The concrete operation that involves ordering stimuli along a quantitative dimension (such as length).
service learning  A form of education that promotes social responsibility and service to the community.
shape constancy  Recognition that an object remains the same even though its orientation to the viewer changes.
shared environmental experiences  Siblings' common environmental experiences, such as their parents' personalities and intellectual orientation, the family's socioeconomic status, and the neighborhood in which they live.
short-term memory  Limited-capacity memory system in which information is usually retained for up to 30 seconds, assuming there is no rehearsal of the information. Using rehearsal, individuals can keep the information in short-term memory longer.
sickle-cell anemia  A genetic disorder that affects the red blood cells and occurs most often in people of African descent.
size constancy  Recognition that an object remains the same even though the retinal image of the object changes.
slow-to-warm-up child  A temperament style in which the child has a low activity level, is somewhat negative, and displays a low intensity of mood.
small for date infants  Also called small for gestational age infants, these infants have birth weights that are below normal when the length of pregnancy is considered. Small for date infants may be preterm or full term.
social cognition  The processes involved in understanding the world around us, especially how we think and reason about other people.
social cognitive theory of gender  This theory emphasizes that children's gender development occurs through observation and imitation of gender behavior, and through rewards and punishments they experience for gender-appropriate and gender-inappropriate behavior.
social cognitive theory of morality  The theory that distinguishes between moral competence—the ability to produce moral behaviors—and moral performance—use of those behaviors in specific situations.
social cognitive theory  The view of psychologists who emphasize behavior, environment, and cognition as the key factors in development.
social constructivist approach  An emphasis on the social contexts of learning and the construction of knowledge through social interaction. Vygotsky's theory reflects this approach.
social conventional reasoning  Focuses on conventional rules established by social consensus, as opposed to moral reasoning that stresses ethical issues.
social play  Play that involves interactions with peers.
social policy  A government's course of action designed to promote the welfare of its citizens.
social referencing  "Reading" emotional cues in others to help determine how to act in a particular situation.
social role theory  A theory stating that gender differences result from the contrasting roles of women and men—social hierarchy and division of labor strongly influence gender differences in power, assertiveness, and nurture.
social smile  A smile in response to an external stimulus, which, early in development, typically is a face.
socioeconomic status (SES)  A grouping of people with similar occupational, educational, and economic characteristics.
socioeconomic status (SES)  Categorization based on a person's occupational, educational, and economic characteristics.
socioemotional processes  Changes in an individual's relationships with other people, emotions, and personality.
standardized test  A test with uniform procedures for administration and scoring. Many standardized tests allow a person's performance to be compared with the performance of other individuals.
status offenses  Juvenile offenses, performed by youth under a specified age, that are not as serious as index offenses. These offenses may include acts such as underage drinking, truancy, and sexual promiscuity.
stereotype threat  Anxiexy that one's behavior might confirm a stereotype about one's group.
stranger anxiety  An infant's fear of and wariness toward strangers; it tends to appear in the second half of the first year of life.
Strange Situation  Ainsworth's observational measure of infant attachment to a caregiver, which requires the infant to move through a series of introductions, separations, and reunions with the caregiver and an adult stranger in a prescribed order.
strategy construction  Creation of new procedures for processing information.
sucking reflex  A newborn's built-in reaction of automatically sucking an object placed in its mouth. The sucking reflex enables the infant to get nourishment before it has associated a nipple with food.
sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS)  A condition that occurs when an infant stops breathing, usually during the night, and suddenly dies without an apparent cause.
sustained attention  The ability to maintain attention to a selected stimulus for a prolonged period of time. Sustained attention is also called focused attention and vigilance.
symbolic function substage  The first substage of preoperational thought, occurring roughly between the ages of 2 and 4. In this substage, the young child gains the ability to represent mentally an object that is not present.
syntax  The ways words are combined to form acceptable phrases and sentences.
tabula rasa view  The idea, proposed by John Locke, that children are like a "blank tablet."
telegraphic speech  The use of short, precise words without grammatical markers such as articles, auxiliary verbs, and other connectives.
temperament  Involves individual differences in behavioral styles, emotions, and characteristic ways of responding.
teratogen  From the Greek word tera, meaning "monster." Any agent that causes a birth defect. The field of study that investigates the causes of birth defects is called teratology.
testosterone  An androgen that is a key hormone in boys' pubertal development.
theory  An interrelated, coherent set of ideas that helps to explain and make predictions.
theory of mind  Awareness of one's own mental processes and the mental processes of others.
thinking  Manipulating and transforming information in memory, usually to form concepts, reason, think critically, and solve problems.
top-dog phenomenon  The circumstance of moving from the top position in elementary school to the lowest position in middle or junior high school.
transitivity  Principle that says if a relation holds between a first object and a second object, and holds between the second object and a third object, then it holds between the first object and the third object. Piaget argued that an understanding of transitivity is characteristic of concrete operational thought.
triarchic theory of intelligence  Sternberg's theory that intelligence comes in three forms: analytical, creative, and practical.
trophoblast  The outer layer of cells that develops in the germinal period. These cells provide nutrition and support for the embryo.
Turner syndrome  A chromosome disorder in females in which either an X chromosome is missing, making the person XO instead of XX, or the second X chromosome is partially deleted.
twin study  A study in which the behavioral similarity of identical twins is compared with the behavioral similarity of fraternal twins.
umbilical cord  A life-support system that contains two arteries and one vein and connects the baby to the placenta.
values clarification  Helping people clarify their sense of their purpose in life and what is worth working for. Students are encouraged to define their own values and understand others' values.
visual preference method  A method developed by Fantz to determine whether infants can distinguish one stimulus from another by measuring the length of time they attend to different stimuli.
Vygotsky's theory  A sociocultural cognitive theory that emphasizes how culture and social interaction guide cognitive development.
Wernicke's area  An area of the brain's left hemisphere that is involved in language comprehension.
whole-language approach  An approach that stresses that reading instruction should parallel children's natural language learning. Reading materials should be whole and meaningful.
working memory  A mental "workbench" where individuals manipulate and assemble information when making decisions, solving problems, and comprehending written and spoken language.
XYY syndrome  A chromosomal disorder in which males have an extra Y chromosome.
zone of proximal development (ZPD)  Vygotsky's term for tasks that are too difficult for children to master alone but can be mastered with assistance from adults or more-skilled children.
zygote  A single cell formed through fertilization.







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