The history of the Jews can be divided into four periods of time that began with a homeless people called the Hebrews or Israelites. They eventually found a homeland in Israel marked with the milestones of establishing a kingly dynasty, a capital in Jerusalem, and a temple. A second period began in the sixth century B.C.E. when the kingdom of Judah and its first temple were destroyed and the people were forced into a fifty-year exile in Babylon. This event led to the emergence of the synagogue and prompted putting religious law and history in written form to guarantee its survival. After the exile, the work of the priests took on great significance. Influences from the surrounding cultures also began to enter into Jewish life and knowledge of Hebrew declined. With foreign domination came Zoroastrian ideas and later the appeal of Hellenistic culture. Tensions between accommodation and rejection of external influences led to the rise of religious factions after 165 B.C.E. These included the Sadducees, the Pharisees, the Zealots, and the Essenes, who possibly assembled the Dead Sea Scrolls. This period also saw the growth of the Diaspora, Jewish communities outside the land of Israel.

The next period was initiated in the Common Era when the second temple was destroyed by the Romans in 70 C.E. This ended the power of the priesthood, whose sacrificial rituals were no longer possible, and forced the religion to move toward a greater focus on scripture. The Hebrew canon was finalized and commentaries were written. Classical or rabbinic Judaism and traditional Jewish life were established, as was mystical Kabbalah. Great communities in the Diaspora both flourished and endured persecution, mainly at the hands of European Christians. The final period, called the Reform, began in about 1800 as a response to the European Enlightenment. It was an impetus to question and modernize traditional Judaism, and it helped produce the diverse branches within Judaism today, which hold differing views on Jewish identity and practice. Centuries of persecution and dislocation reached a climax with the Holocaust under the reign of Adolf Hitler. One-third of all Jews were killed. Out of the ashes, the Nation of Israel was born.

Judaism is often associated with its most important book. The Hebrew Bible contains a variety of material that essentially records interactions and responses between the people and a God who is portrayed in complex ways, perhaps reflecting different ancient traditions that were ultimately combined. The scriptures are divided into three parts. First is the Torah, the sacred core of five books containing stories of the Creation, Adam and Eve, a Great Flood, the Hebrew patriarchs and matriarchs, and Moses, the great liberator and lawgiver. It includes laws about religious ritual and daily conduct, including the Ten Commandments. The second part is called the Prophets, after those people who spoke in God's name to the Jewish people. The third part is called the Writings, which include a variety of material, such as short stories, proverbs, poetry, and reflections on life.

Judaism centers on a way of life that recognizes the presence of God and the sanctification of human life. Beyond embracing the Ten Commandments, the most obvious examples are keeping the Sabbath, observing holy days and festivals, and following dietary practices. The mythic power of its great stories and the clarity of its ethical codes have shaped Western civilization. Judaism is known for its strong moral orientation and a this-worldly focus that has led to major contributions in multiple fields.