Article II of the Constitution outlines the requirements for election to office, as well as the powers, duties, and limits on the authority of the president.
The nature of presidency has evolved over the years.
- George Washington avoided partisanship and was respectful of Congress, but was willing to assert his independence.
- With the rise of political parties, Congress played the lead role in choosing presidential candidates.
- The mid-1800s saw a series of strong presidents including Jackson, Polk, and Lincoln.
- After the Civil War, presidential power waned.
- The power of parties declined after 1900 and the presidency regained power.
- Franklin Roosevelt began the modern era of expanded presidential power.
THE PATH TO THE PRESIDENCY
Most presidential candidates have been white, male, Anglo-Saxon, and Protestant.
Most presidential candidates held political office immediately before becoming chief executive.
GETTING ELECTED
Presidential candidates must raise huge sums of money to run for office.
- Primary candidates are eligible for partial public financing of campaign activities.
- Because of public funding limits, many candidates now fund their campaigns privately.
- Major parties qualify for public funding of the national nominating conventions.
- Recent campaigns have demonstrated that public financing needs to be reformed.
- The Internet has changed the way candidates solicit funds, especially from small donors.
Primary elections and caucuses determine the composition of each state's delegation to the party's national convention.
- In statewide elections, voters express support for specific candidates.
- Delegates to the party's convention pledge to vote for the candidates they were chosen to represent.
- A candidate must have the support of a majority of delegates to be nominated.
- States with early primaries play a disproportionate role in shaping public opinion about the candidates.
The nominees and their running mates are usually decided well before the national conventions.
After the nominees are chosen, the parties vie for votes in the general election.
Members of the Electoral College cast the deciding votes in presidential elections.
- The candidate with a plurality of popular votes in a state receives all the electoral votes from that state (except Maine and Nebraska, which split their electoral votes).
- The candidate with the most electoral votes wins the general election.
- If no candidate receives a majority of electoral votes, members of the House choose the president from among the top vote getters.
- A candidate may win the popular vote, but lose the electoral vote.
Candidates must devise a strategy to gather the electoral votes they need to win.
- They must win "base" states that reliably vote for their party in general elections.
- Candidates rarely spend time or resources in their opponents' strongholds.
- They must pick competitive battleground states where they have the best hope of success.
PRESIDENTIAL POWER
The president has few express powers.
- The president uses powers delegated by Congress to enact legislation.
- The president may exercise discretionary powers to carry out official duties.
As the nation's chief executive officer, the president oversees a vast bureaucracy.
- The president appoints people to run the day-to-day operations of government.
- The president must seek Senate approval for all appointments.
- The president submits an annual budget to Congress.
- The Office of Management and Budget (OMB) assists the president in preparing budget requests.
- The president is constitutionally responsible for enforcing the law.
- Federal law enforcement authority has grown steadily in recent years.
- The president may issue executive orders to carry out constitutional duties.
- The use of executive orders has increased with the growth of the federal bureaucracy.
The president serves as commander in chief of the armed forces.
- In most of the nation's conflicts, the president has acted without a declaration of war by Congress.
- During times of crisis, the president may assume emergency powers.
- The use of emergency powers is controversial and has led to conflicts over civil liberties.
The president historically has taken the lead in negotiating treaties and conducting diplomacy.
- The president can extend diplomatic recognition to foreign nations.
- Presidential doctrines outline the goals or purposes of U.S. foreign policy.
- The president can sign executive agreements with foreign leaders which do not require Senate approval.
- Presidents can convene summit meetings with foreign leaders.
The president serves as the nation's symbolic leader, or chief of state.
- The president has few official duties as chief of state.
- The role has become more important as the president's public visibility has increased.
The president plays a key role in lawmaking.
- Presidents can veto laws passed by Congress.
- Two-thirds of both houses of Congress must vote to override a presidential veto.
- The executive branch actively lobbies Congress to influence legislation.
- Presidents can add signing statements to legislation they approve, but to which they have some objection or reservation.
PRESIDENTIAL ROLES
The president serves as leader of the party.
- The president can distribute patronage and offer support to party loyalists.
- The president raises money and campaigns for congressional candidates.
The president has relatively little control over the economy.
- The president can influence tax and spending proposals.
- The president can negotiate trade agreements.
The president is responsible for promoting the party's agenda.
- Presidents usually enjoy a honeymoon period free from public criticism.
- Presidents use polls to gauge the public mood and shape their messages.
THE EXECUTIVE BRANCH
The cabinet consists of political appointees chosen by the president to lead the most important government departments.
- Presidents rely primarily on the inner cabinet: the secretaries of defense, treasury, and state and the attorney general.
- Modern presidents rarely meet with the entire cabinet except for ceremonial occasions.
- The cabinet's role in policymaking is clearly receding.
The Executive Office of the President (EOP) advises the president and helps manage the federal bureaucracy.
- The White House Office includes the president's closest political advisers, who require no Senate confirmation.
- The president's closest adviser is the chief of staff, who coordinates communication between the president and other staffers.
- The National Security Council (NSC) advises the president on matters of national security.
- The Office of Management and Budget (OMB) assists the president in preparing budget requests.
- Policy councils gather experts to advise the president in specific policy areas.
PRESIDENTIAL STYLE
Each president adopts a management style that affects decision making within the administration.
Personal traits associated with successful presidents include intelligence, communication skills, decisiveness, respect for democratic principles, optimism, and hope.
Character traits linked to failure include compulsiveness, rigidity, defensiveness, and introversion.
LIMITS TO PRESIDENTIAL POWER
The presidency has become extremely powerful but must still work within the framework of the Constitution.
Impeachment provides the most severe limit on presidential power.
THE VICE PRESIDENCY
The vice president has few constitutional duties.
- The vice president serves as president of the Senate.
- The vice president acts as successor to the president in case of death or resignation.
Recent presidents have given more authority to their vice presidents.
- Al Gore ran Bill Clinton's "reinventing government" initiative.
- Dick Cheney played a central role in George W. Bush's administration.
