Parties fulfill different roles for different actors.
- Parties simplify voters' electoral choices.
- Parties help candidates gain political power.
- Parties provide elected officials a common set of principles that help them govern.
Various factors led to U.S. two-party system.
- The United States employs a single-member district or winner-take-all system in elections.
- Americans downplay class or ethnic differences, reducing the attraction of parties that target specific groups.
- State laws make it difficult for new parties to gain access to the ballot.
- Public financing of campaigns favors established parties.
GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF OUR TWO-PARTY SYSTEM
Shifting party loyalties have produced five distinct party eras.
- Andrew Jackson built the first mass party in the United States, the Democrats, in the early 1800s.
- The second party era began in the mid-1800s with the rise of opposition parties such as Whigs and Republicans.
- In the third party era, politics emphasized loyalty to party or faction and voter turnout was high.
- The growth of third-party movements marked the fourth party era in the early 1900s.
- The Great Depression started the fifth party era; Democrats dominated government from the 1930s to the 1960s.
Republicans have made inroads with middle income and blue collar voters.
Democrats have done better in recent years among women and professionals with higher incomes and education.
Single women are much more likely to vote Democratic; married women prefer the Republicans.
The periodic changes in the strength, composition, and direction of parties are known as realignments.
Scholars' differing theories as to the causes for realignment include generational changes, critical elections, and transforming events.
Dealignment is a competing theory that asserts that both parties are losing their relevance and that the American voter is indifferent to the major parties.
BUILT TO WIN: PARTY STRUCTURE
Each party has a national committee made up of members from each of the state parties.
- In recent years, fundraising has been one of the primary functions of the national committees.
- The national committee is also an important source of information and expertise.
- Close working relationships with interest groups has polarized the parties at the national level.
- National party platforms often reflect the priorities of interests groups rather than the average party supporter.
Each party maintains organizations to elect candidates to the House and Senate.
State parties have organizations somewhat parallel to national parties.
- National and state organizations often integrate their party activities.
- State parties have become more professionalized and improved their ability to raise money.
Local party organizations have declined in importance but many still recruit candidates and organize and run campaigns for local offices.
The level of organization that comes closest to the voter is the precinct - the area serving as a polling district for a part of the population.
THRID PARTY AND INDEPENDENT CANDIDACIES
Third parties or independent candidacies usually arise in periods of great change or crisis.
Splinter parties break away from one of the major parties.
Ideological parties are committed to an ideological position different from most voters.
Single issue or candidate parties arise around an issue or a strong personality.
Obstacles for these parties and candidates include getting on the ballot, organizing supporters, and generating sufficient funding.
CANDIDATES AND ELECTORAL POLITICS: CANDIDATE-CENTERED CAMPAIGNING
Candidates devote a large part of their time to raising money.
Sources of campaign funding include private donors, political action committees, 527 groups, and the Internet.
Major campaign expenses include advertising, polling, market research, hiring staff, and renting a headquarters.
Primary elections allow voters to choose who will lead their parties in the general elections.
Candidates communicate with voters in several ways.
- In retail politics, candidates personally meet voters and ask for support.
- Earned media is free media coverage given to a candidate because of some action or position.
- Paid media includes TV, radio, and newspaper ads along with printed brochures.
Candidates may resort to negative or attack advertising.
- Attack ads may convey information that some voters find useful in making up their minds.
- Negative campaigning may reduce political interest among voters in the long run.
VOTERS IN THE ELECTORAL PROCESS: HOW AMERICANS DECIDE
For committed partisans, party affiliation is still a powerful predictor of choice of candidate.
When party affiliation fails to guide voters, they turn to factors like issues and personal characteristics.
The performance of the economy is high on the list of issues voters are most concerned about.
Social and cultural issues have increasingly dominated recent campaigns.
Candidate characteristics are especially important when no pressing issues divide the public or when the public perceives little difference between party positions.
Voters usually feel more comfortable with candidates to whom they can personally relate.
Campaigns sometimes use opposition research to find and exploit weaknesses in opponents' backgrounds.
