| developmental psychology | The branch of psychology that studies the patterns of growth and change that occur throughout life.
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| nature–nurture issue | The issue of the degree to which environment and heredity influence behavior.
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| identical twins | Twins who are genetically identical.
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| cross-sectional research | A research method that compares people of different ages at the same point in time.
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| longitudinal research | A research method that investigates behavior as participants age.
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| sequential research | A research method that combines cross-sectional and longitudinal research by considering a number of different age groups and examining them at several points in time.
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| chromosomes | Rod-shaped structures that contain all basic hereditary information.
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| genes | The parts of the chromosomes through which genetic information is transmitted.
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| zygote | The new cell formed by the union of an egg and sperm.
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| embryo | A developed zygote that has a heart, a brain, and other organs.
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| fetus | A developing individual from eight weeks after conception until birth.
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| age of viability | The point at which a fetus can survive if born prematurely.
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| teratogens | Environmental agents such as a drug, chemical, virus, or other factor that produce a birth defect.
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| neonate | A newborn child.
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| reflexes | Unlearned, involuntary responses that occur automatically in the presence of certain stimuli.
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| habituation | The decrease in the response to a stimulus that occurs after repeated presentations of the same stimulus.
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| attachment | The positive emotional bond that develops between a child and a particular individual.
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| authoritarian parents | Parents who are rigid and punitive and value unquestioning obedience from their children.
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| permissive parents | Parents who give their children relaxed or inconsistent direction and, although they are warm, require little of them.
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| authoritative parents | Parents who are firm, set clear limits, reason with their children, and explain things to them.
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| uninvolved parents | Parents who show little interest in their children and are emotionally detached.
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| temperament | The innate disposition that emerges early in life.
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| psychosocial development | Development of individuals' interactions and understanding of each other and of their knowledge and understanding of themselves as members of society.
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| trust-versus-mistrust stage | According to Erikson, the first stage of psychosocial development, occurring from birth to age 1½ years, during which time infants develop feelings of trust or lack of trust.
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| autonomy-versus-shame and-doubt stage | The period during which, according to Erikson, toddlers (ages 1½ to 3 years) develop independence and autonomy if exploration and freedom are encouraged or shame and self-doubt if they are restricted and overprotected.
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| initiative-versus-guilt stage | According to Erikson, the period during which children ages 3 to 6 years experience conflict between independence of action and the sometimes negative results of that action.
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| industry-versus-inferiority stage | According to Erikson, the last stage of childhood, during which children age 6 to 12 years may develop positive social interactions with others or may feel inadequate and become less sociable.
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| cognitive development | The process by which a child's understanding of the world changes as a function of age and experience.
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| sensorimotor stage | According to Piaget, the stage from birth to 2 years, during which a child has little competence in representing the environment by using images, language, or other symbols.
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| object permanence | The awareness that objects-and people-continue to exist even if they are out of sight.
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| preoperational stage | According to Piaget, the period from 2 to 7 years of age that is characterized by language development.
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| egocentric thought | A way of thinking in which a child views the world entirely from his or her own perspective.
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| principle of conservation | The knowledge that quantity is unrelated to the arrangement and physical appearance of objects.
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| concrete operational stage | According to Piaget, the period from 7 to 12 years of age that is characterized by logical thought and a loss of egocentrism.
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| formal operational stage | According to Piaget, the period from age 12 to adulthood that is characterized by abstract thought.
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| information processing | The way in which people take in, use, and store information.
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| metacognition | An awareness and understanding of one's own cognitive processes.
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| zone of proximal development (ZPD) | According to Vygotsky, the level at which a child can almost, but not fully, comprehend or perform a task on his or her own.
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| adolescence | The developmental stage between childhood and adulthood.
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| puberty | The period at which maturation of the sexual organs occurs, beginning at about age 11 or 12 for girls and 13 or 14 for boys.
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| identity-versus-role confusion stage | According to Erikson, a time in adolescence of major testing to determine one's unique qualities.
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| identity | The distinguishing character of the individual: who each of us is, what our roles are, and what we are capable of.
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| intimacy-versus-isolation stage | According to Erikson, a period during early adulthood that focuses on developing close relationships.
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| generativity-versus-stagnation stage | According to Erikson, a period in middle adulthood during which we take stock of our contributions to family and society.
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| ego-integrity-versus-despair stage | According to Erikson, a period from late adulthood until death during which we review life's accomplishments and failures.
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| emerging adulthood | The period beginning in the late teenage years and extending into the mid-20.
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| menopause | The period during which women stop menstruating and are no longer fertile.
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| genetic preprogramming theories of aging | Theories that suggest that human cells have a built-in time limit to their reproduction and that they are no longer able to divide after a certain time.
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| wear-and-tear theories of aging | Theories that suggest that the mechanical functions of the body simply stop working efficiently.
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| Alzheimer's disease | A progressive brain disorder that leads to a gradual and irreversible decline in cognitive abilities.
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| disengagement theory of aging | A theory that suggests that aging produces a gradual withdrawal from the world on physical, psychological, and social levels.
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| activity theory of aging | A theory that suggests that the elderly who are most successful while aging are those who maintain the interests and activities they had during middle age.
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| life review | The process by which people examine and evaluate their lives.
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