| Andrew | A disciple of John the Baptist (John 1:35-40) who, according to John's Gospel, became the first of Jesus' followers and brought his brother Peter to Jesus (John 1:41-42). Mark gives another version of this calling (Mark 1:16-18; see also John 6:5; 12:22).
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| Annas | A former high priest before whom Jesus was brought for trial (John 18:13), Annas was father-in-law of Caiaphas, then the currently reigning High Priest (see also Luke 3:2 and Acts 4:6).
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| aphorism | A brief, pithy saying that challenges or overturns conventional wisdom. Jesus was believed to have favored aphorisms in speech.
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| baptism | A religious ceremony first associated with John the Baptist (Mark 1:4; 11:30; Luke 7:29) and performed on converts in the infant Christian community (Acts 2:38-41; 19:3-5). Baptism may have derived from ritual cleansings with water practiced by the Essenes, from some Pharisees' use of it as a conversion alternative to circumcision, or from initiation rites into Hellenistic mystery religions. In Christianity, it is the ceremony of initiation into the church, performed either by total immersion in water or by pouring water on the head.
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| Barabbas | A condemned murderer and possibly a revolutionary whom the Roman procurator Pontius Pilate released instead of Jesus (Mark 15:6-15; Matt. 27:15-18; Luke 23:16-25; John 18:39-49).
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| Bartholomew | One of the twelve apostles mentioned in all three Synoptics as well as in the list in Acts (Matt. 10:3; Mark 3:18; Luke 6:14; Acts 1:13), Bartholomew is sometimes identified with the Nathanael of John's Gospel (John 1:45-51 and 21:2).
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| Beatitudes | The list of blessings or happinesses with which Jesus begins the Sermon on the Mount (Matt. 5:3-12). Luke gives a variation of these pronouncements (Luke 6:20-23).
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| beloved disciple | The unnamed "disciple whom Jesus loved" (John 13:23) whom the author of John's Gospel depicts as enjoying a more intimate relationship with Jesus than Peter or any other follower (John 13:21-29; 19:26-27; 20:2-10; 21:20-24). Although tradition identifies this disciple with the apostle John, neither the Gospels nor scholars can verify the assumption.
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| Bethlehem | A village about five miles south of Jerusalem, birthplace of David (1 Sam. 17:12) and the place where Samuel secretly anointed him king of Israel (1 Sam. 16:1-2; 20:6). According to Micah 5:2, it was to be the Messiah's birthplace, an idea that influenced the Gospel writers' accounts of Jesus' nativity (Matt. 2:5-6; Luke 2; John 7:42).
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| Caesarea Philippi | An inland city north of the Sea of Galilee built by Philip, son of Herod the Great (4 b.c.e.-34 c.e.), and named for the emperor Tiberius; the site of Peter's "confession" that Jesus was the Messiah (Mark 8:27; Matt. 16:13).
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| Caiaphas | Joseph Caiaphas, high priest of Jerusalem during the reign of the emperor Tiberius (Matt. 26:3, 57-66; John 9:49; 18:13-28; Acts 4:6). Son-in-law to his immediate predecessor, Annas, he was appointed to the office by the procurator Valerius Gratus and presided over Jesus' trial before the Sanhedrin.
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| Capernaum | The "village of Nahum," a small port on the northwest shore of the Sea of Galilee that Jesus used as headquarters for his Galilean ministry and where he performed many "mighty works" (Matt. 9:1, 9-11; Mark 1:21-29; 2:3-11; Luke 7; John 4:46-54).
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| Cephas | A name meaning "stone" that Jesus bestowed upon Simon Peter (John 1:42).
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| Christ | From the Greek Christos, a translation of the Hebrew Messiah, meaning "anointed one," the term derives from the ancient practice of anointing kings at their coronation. The Messiah or Christ was to be a kingly descendant of David.
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| Christology | The theological discipline that deals with the nature of Jesus Christ, particularly his divinity, relation to the divine Father, and role in human redemption.
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| codex | A manuscript book of an ancient biblical text, first used by Christians to replace the unwieldy scrolls on which the Scriptures were first recorded.
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| disciple | From the Greek word meaning "learner," the term is applied in the New Testament to followers of particular religious figures, such as Moses (John 9:28), John the Baptist (Luke 11:1; John 1:35), the Pharisees (Mark 2:18), or Jesus. Although it applies especially to the Twelve (Matt. 20:17), it also designates others who associated with Jesus (Matt. 14:26). Paul made numerous disciples "for Christ" (Acts 20:1, 7; 21:16).
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| Elizabeth | A Levite, wife of the priest Zechariah, and mother of John the Baptist (Luke 1).
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| epiphany | An appearance or manifestation, particularly of a divine being; typically sudden and accompanied by dramatic natural effects (Exod. 3, 6, 19, 24; Isa. 6; Job 38-42; etc.).
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| Eucharist | From the Greek work for "gratitude" or "thanksgiving," Eucharist is a name for the Christian ceremony of consecrated bread and wine that Jesus initiated at the Last Supper (Mark 14:22-25; Matt. 26:26-29; etc.).
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| Evangelist | From the Greek evangelion, "good news"; the writer of a Gospel.
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| exegesis | A literary term denoting close analysis and interpretation of a text to discover the original author's exact intent and meaning. Once this has been established, later interpretations may also be considered.
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| exorcism | The act or practice of expelling a demon or evil spirit from a person or place (Tob. 8:1-3; Mark 1:23-27, 32-34; 5:1-20; Matt. 8:28-34; Acts 19:13-19; etc.).
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| form criticism | An English rendition of the German Formsgeschichte, a method of biblical criticism that attempts to isolate, classify, and analyze individual units or characteristic forms contained in a literary text and to identify the probable preliterary form of these units before their incorporation into the written text. Form criticism also attempts to discover the setting in life (Sitz-im-Leben) of each unit-that is, the historical, social, religious, and cultural environment from which it developed-and to trace or reconstruct the process by which various traditions evolved from their original oral state to their final literary form.
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| Gabriel | In the Hebrew angelic hierarchy, one of the seven archangels whose duty it was to convey the Deity's messages. Gabriel explained Daniel's visions to him (Dan. 8:15-26; 9:20-27) and, in the New Testament, announced the births of John the Baptist and Jesus (Luke 1:5-17; 26-38). The name may mean "person of God" or "God has shown himself mighty."
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| Galilee | From the Hebrew term Galil ha-goyim, meaning "circle of Gentiles," the name given northern Palestine lying west of the Jordan, an area originally assigned to the tribes of Ashur, Zebulun, and Naphtali, who failed to evict the Canaanites living there (Josh. 19; Judg. 1, 4, 5). The region where Jesus grew up (Matt. 2:23; Luke 2), Galilee was then under Roman control but administered by the tetrarch Herod Antipas (4 b.c.e.-39 c.e.) (Luke 23:5-7).
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| Gehenna | New Testament name for the "Valley of the Son [or Children] of Hinnom" that bordered Jerusalem on the south and west and was the site of human sacrifices to Molech and other pagan gods (Jer. 7:32; Lev. 18:21; 1 Kings 11:7; 2 Chron. 28:3; 33:6). Later used as a dump in which to burn garbage, it became a symbol of punishment in the afterlife and is cited as such by Jesus (Matt. 5:22; 10:28-29; 18:8; 25:30, 46; etc.).
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| Gethsemane | The site of a garden or orchard on the Mount of Olives where Jesus took his disciples after the Last Supper; the place where he was arrested (Matt. 26:36-56; Mark 14:32-52; Luke 22:39-53; John 18:1-14).
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| Gnosticism | A movement in early Christianity which taught that salvation was gained through special knowledge (gnosis) revealed through a spiritual savior (presumably Jesus) and was the property of an elite few who had been initiated into its mysteries. Gnosticism became a major heresy in the primitive church, though little is now known about its pre-cise tenets.
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| Gospel | (1) The Christian message-literally, "good news." (2) The name applied to the literary form of the religious biographies of Jesus, especially Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John.
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| Gospel of Thomas | A Gnostic collection of approximately 114 sayings attributed to Jesus and allegedly the work of his disciple Didymus Judas Thomas. Although found in Egypt in 1945 as part of a thirteen-volume work containing forty-nine Coptic-language books dating from the fourth and fifth centuries c.e., it may have been written as early as the last part of the first century c.e.
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| haggadah | Jewish narrative writings dating from the early centuries c.e. that illustrate and interpret the nonlegal portions of the Torah (law).
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| halakah | A collection of Jewish interpretations and applications of the Mosaic Law dating from the early centuries c.e.; a part of the legal sections of the Talmud.
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| Hannah | Wife of Elkanah and mother of Samuel (1 Sam. 1). Hannah's lyric prayer (1 Sam. 2:1-10) anticipates the Magnificat of Mary (Luke 1:42-45).
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| Herod Antipas | son of Herod I, tetrarch of Galilee (Luke 3:1) and Perea (4 b.c.e.-39 c.e.), is frequently mentioned in the New Testament. Jesus, who called him "that fox" (Luke 13:31-32) and regarded him as a malign influence (Mark 8:15), was tried before him (Luke 9:7, 9; 23:7-15). Antipas was also responsible for executing John the Baptist (Matt. 14:1-12).
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| Holy Spirit, the | The presence of God active in human life, a concept most explicitly set forth in John 14:16-26 and in the Pentecost miracle depicted in Acts 2. The Hebrew Bible speaks of "the spirit of God" (based on the Hebrew word for "wind" or "breath") as the force that created the universe (Gen. 1:2; Job 26:13; Ps. 104:29-30) and that inspires humans to prophesy and otherwise carry out the divine will (Exod. 31:3; Judg. 3:10; 1 Sam. 16:13-14; Isa. 61:1-3; Joel 2:28-30). In post-New Testament times, the Holy Spirit was declared to be the Third Person in the Trinity (Matt. 28:19-20).
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| Incarnation | The Christian doctrine asserting that the prehuman Son of God became flesh, the man Jesus of Nazareth, to reveal the divine will to humanity-a doctrine based largely on the Logos hymn that opens the fourth Gospel (John 1:1-18, especially 1:14; see also Col. 1:15-20; 2:9-15; Phil. 2:5-11; Heb. 1:1-4; 2:14-18).
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| Jairus | The head of a synagogue in Galilee who asked Jesus to heal his dying child, for which act of faith he was rewarded with the girl's miraculous cure (Luke 8:41-42, 49-56; Mark 5:35-43; Matt. 9:18-20, 23-26).
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| James | 1. Son of Zebedee, brother of John, and one of the Twelve Apostles (Mark 1:19-20; 3:17; Matt. 4:21-22; 10:2; Luke 5:10; 6:14). A Galilean fisherman, he left his trade to follow Jesus and, with John and Peter, became a member of his inner circle. He was among the three disciples present at the Transfiguration (Mark 9:2-10; Matt. 17:1-9; Luke 9:28-36) and was at Jesus' side during the last hours before his arrest (Mark 14:32-42; Matt. 26:36-45). James and John used their intimacy to request a favored place in the messianic kingdom, thus arousing the other apostles' indignation (Mark 10:35-45). James was beheaded when Herod Agrippa I persecuted the Jerusalem church (41-44 c.e.) (Acts 12:2).
2. James, son of Alphaeus and Mary (Acts 1:13; Mark 16:1), one of the Twelve (Matt. 10:3-4), called "the less" or "the younger" (Mark 15:40).
3. James, the eldest of Jesus' three "brothers" (or close male relatives) named in the Gospels (Mark 6:3; Matt. 13:55), first opposed Jesus' work (Matt. 12:46-50; Mark 3:31-35; Luke 8:19-21; John 7:3-5) but was apparently converted by one of Jesus' postresurrection appearances (1 Cor. 15:7) and became a leader in the Jerusalem church (Acts 15:13-34; 21:18-26). According to legend, a Nazirite and upholder of the Mosaic Law, he was known as James "the righteous." James apparently clashed with Paul over the latter's policy of absolving Gentile converts from circumcision and other legalistic requirements (Gal. 1:18-2:12). The reputed author of the New Testament Epistle of James, he was martyred at Jerusalem in the early 60s c.e.
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| John the Baptist | The son of Zechariah, a priest, and Elisabeth (Luke 1:5-24, 56-80), John was an ascetic who preached the imminence of judgment and baptized converts in the Jordan River as a symbol of their repentance from sin (Matt. 3:1-12; Mark 1:2-8; Luke 3:1-18). The Gospel writers viewed him as an Elijah figure and forerunner of the Messiah (Luke 1:17; Matt. 11:12-14; John 1:15, 9-34; 3:22-36) who baptized Jesus but also recognized his superiority (Matt. 3:13-17; Mark 1:9-11; Luke 3:21-22). When imprisoned by Herod Antipas, he inquired whether Jesus were the expected "one who is to come." Jesus' answer was equivocal, but he praised John's work as fulfilling prophecy (Matt. 11:2-19; Luke 7:24-35). At his step-daughter Salome's request, Herod had John beheaded (Matt. 14:6-12; Mark 6:17-29). Some of John's disciples later became Christians (John 1:37; Acts 18:25).
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| Joseph of Arimathaea | A wealthy member of the Sanhedrin and, according to John 19:38, a secret follower of Jesus who claimed Jesus' crucified body from Pilate for burial in his private garden tomb (Matt. 27:57-60; Mark 15:42-46; Luke 23:50-53; John 19:38-42).
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| Judas | A late form of the name Judah, popular after the time of Judas (the Jew) Maccabeus and borne by several New Testament figures: (1) the brother (or son) of James, one of the twelve apostles (Luke 6:16), who is sometimes identified with the Thaddeus of Matthew 10:3 or the Judas of John 14:22; (2) the "brother" or kinsman of Jesus (Mark 6:3; Matt. 13:55); (3) Judas Iscariot (Judas the man of Kerioth), son of Simon Iscariot (John 6:71; 13:26), the apostle who betrayed Jesus to the priests and Romans for thirty pieces of silver (Mark 3:19; 14:10; Luke 6:16; Matt. 26:14-16, 47; John 18:3) but later returned the blood money and committed suicide (Matt. 27:3-5; Acts 1:18-20). The Gospel writers little understood Judas's motives, attributing them to simple greed or to the influence of Satan (Luke 22:3; John 6:71; 12:1-8; 13:11, 27-29).
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| kerygma | A Greek term meaning "proclamation," it refers to the act of publicly preaching the Christian message.
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| Lazarus | (1) The brother of Mary and Martha, a resident of Bethany whom Jesus restored to life (John 11:1-12:10). (2) The beggar in Jesus' parable of rewards and punishments in the afterlife (Luke 16:20-25).
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| Logos | A Greek term meaning both "word" and "reason," used by Greek philosophers to denote the rational principle that creates and informs the universe. Amplified by Philo Judaeus of Alexandria, Egypt, to represent the mediator between God and his material creation, as Wisdom had been in Proverbs 8:22-31, the term found its most famous expression in the prologue to the Fourth Gospel to denote the prehuman Jesus-"the Word became flesh and dwelt among us" (John 1:14).
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| Luke | A physician and traveling companion of Paul (Col. 4:14; Philem. 24; 2 Tim. 4:11) to whom a late second-century tradition ascribes the Gospel of Luke and Book of Acts.
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| Mark (John Mark) | Son of Mary, a Jerusalem Jew who accompanied Barnabas (his cousin) and Paul on an early missionary journey (Acts 12:12-25; 13:5, 13; 15:37). For reasons unstated, he left them at Perga (Acts 13:13), which so angered Paul that he refused to allow Mark to join a later preaching campaign (Acts 15:38), though he and the apostle were later reconciled (Col. 4:10; Philem. 24). Some identify Mark with the youth who ran away naked at the time of Jesus' arrest (Mark 14:51-52). An early tradition ascribes authorship of the Gospel of Mark to him, as Papias and Eusebius (Ecclesiastical Histories 3.39.15) testify.
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| Mary | From the Latin and Greek Maria, from the Hebrew Miryam (Miriam), a name borne by six women in the New Testament.
1. Mary the virgin, wife of Joseph and mother of Jesus, who, the angel Gabriel informed her, was conceived by the Holy Spirit (Matt. 1:18-25; Luke 1:26-56; 2:21). From her home in Nazareth, Mary traveled to Bethlehem, where her first son was born (Luke 2:1-18), and thence into Egypt to escape Herod's persecution (Matt. 2:1-18), returning to Nazareth in Galilee after Herod's death (4 b.c.e.) (Matt. 2:19-23). She had one sister (John 18:25), probably Salome, wife of Zebedee, mother of James and John (Matt. 27:56), and was also related to Elisabeth, mother of John the Baptist (Luke 1:36). Gabriel's annunciation of the Messiah's birth occurs in Luke 1:26-36; the Magnificat, in Luke 1:46-55.
Mary visited Jerusalem annually for the Passover (Luke 2:41) and reprimanded the twelve-year-old Jesus for lingering behind at the Temple (Luke 2:46-50). She may have been among family members convinced that Jesus' early preaching showed mental instability (Mark 3:21) and apparently humored his requests during the wedding celebration at Cana (John 2:1-12). Although Jesus showed his mother little deference during his ministry (Mark 3:31-35; Luke 11:27-28; John 2:4), on the cross he entrusted her care to his "beloved disciple" (John 19:25-27). Mary last appears in the upper room praying with the disciples just before Pentecost (Acts 1:13-14).
2. Mary Magdalene, a woman from Magdala, from whom Jesus cast out seven demons (Luke 8:1-2) and who became his follower. A common tradition asserts that she had been a prostitute whom Jesus had rescued from her former life (Mark 16:9; Luke 7:37-50), but this is by no means certain. She was present at the Crucifixion (Mark 15:40; Matt. 15:47), visited Jesus' tomb early Sunday morning (Matt. 28:1; Mark 16:1; Luke 24:10; John 20:1), and was one of the first to see the risen Jesus (Matt. 28:9; Mark 16:9; John 20:11-18), although the male disciples refused to believe her (Luke 24:9-11).
3. Mary, sister of Lazarus and Martha, whose home at Bethany Jesus frequented (Luke 10:38-42; John 11:1-12:8).
4. Mary, wife of Cleophas, mother of James the Less and Joseph (Joses), was a witness of Jesus' crucifixion, burial, and resurrection (Matt. 27:56-61; 28:1; Mark 15:40, 47; 16:1; Luke 24:10; John 19:25).
5. Mary, sister of Barnabas and mother of John Mark, provided her Jerusalem home as a meeting place for the disciples (Acts 12:12; Col. 4:10).
6. An otherwise anonymous Mary mentioned in Romans 16:6.
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| Matthew | A Jewish tax collector working for Rome whom Jesus called to be one of the twelve apostles (Matt. 9:9; 10:3; Mark 2:13-17; 3:18; Luke 5:27-32; 6:15; Acts 1:13), Matthew (also called Levi) is the traditional author of the Gospel of Matthew, an attribution contested by most scholars.
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| midrash | From a Hebrew work meaning "to search out," midrash refers to a commentary on or interpretation of Scripture. Collections of such haggadic or halakic expositions of the significance of the biblical text are called midrashim.
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| Nazareth | A town in Lower Galilee above the Plain of Esdraelon (Megiddo) where Jesus spent his youth and began his ministry (Matt. 2:23; Luke 1:26; 4:16; John 1:46).
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| Nicodemus | A leading Pharisee and member of the Sanhedrin (John 3:1; 7:50; 19:39) who discussed spiritual rebirth with Jesus (John 3:1-21), visited him by night and defended him against other Pharisees (John 7:45-52), and, with Joseph of Arimathaea, helped entomb his body (John 19:38-42).
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| Olives, Mount of (Olivet) | A mile-long limestone ridge with several distinct summits paralleling the eastern section of Jerusalem, from which it is separated by the narrow Kidron Valley. Here David fled during Absalom's rebellion (2 Sam. 15:30-32), and according to Zechariah 14:3-5, here Yahweh will stand at the final eschatological battle, when the mountain will be torn asunder from east to west. From its summit, with its panoramic view of Jerusalem, Jesus delivered his apocalyptic judgment on the city that had rejected him (Matt. 24-25). He often retreated to its shady groves in the evening (John 7:53; 8:1), including the night before his death (Matt. 26:30-56; Mark 14:26; Luke 22:39; see also Matt. 21:1; Mark 11:1; Luke 19:29; Acts 1:12).
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| parable | From the Greek parabole (a placing beside, a comparison), a short fictional narrative that compares something familiar to an unexpected spiritual value. Using a commonplace object or event to illustrate a religious principle was Jesus' typical method of teaching in the Synoptic Gospels (Matt. 13:3-53; 22:1; 24:32; Mark 4:2-3; 13:28; Luke 8:4-18; 13:18-21; 21:29). Yet, a recurrent tradition held that Jesus used parables to prevent most of his hearers from understanding his message (Mark 4:10-12; Matt. 13:10-15; Luke 8:9-10). Famous Hebrew Bible parables or fables include Nathan's (2 Sam. 12:1-14), Isaiah's (Isa. 5:1-7), Jotham's (Judg. 9:7-21), Jehoash's (2 Kings 14:8-10), and Ezekiel's (Ezek. 17:22-24; 24:1-14), the last two of which are allegories.
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| Paraclete | A Greek term (meaning "an advocate" or "intercessor summoned to aid") that the Gospel of John uses to denote the Holy Spirit, Paraclete is variously translated "Comforter," "Helper," "Advocate," or "Spirit of Truth" (John 7:39; 14:12, 16-18; 15:26; 16:7; see also 1 John 2:1).
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| Parousia | A Greek term (meaning "being by" or "being near") used to denote the Second Coming or appearance of Christ, commonly regarded as his return to judge the world, punish the wicked, and redeem the saved. It is a major concept in apocalyptic Christianity (Mark 13; Matt. 24-25; Luke 21; 1 and 2 Thess.; 2 Pet. 2-3; Rev.); but see also John 14:25-29; which emphasizes Jesus' continued spiritual presence rather than an eschatological apparition.
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| Passion | The term commonly used to denote Jesus' suffering and death (Acts 1:3).
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| Passover | An annual Jewish observance commemorating Israel's last night of bondage in Egypt when the Angel of Death "passed over" Israelite homes marked with the blood of a sacrificial lamb to destroy the firstborn of every Egyptian household (Exod. 12:1-51). Beginning the seven-day Feast of Unleavened Bread, it is a ritual meal eaten on Nisan 14 (March-April) that traditionally includes roast lamb, unleavened bread, and bitter herbs (Exod. 12:15-20; 13:3-10; Lev. 23:5; Num. 9:5; 28:16; Deut. 16:1). The Passover was scrupulously observed by Israel's great leaders, including Joshua (Josh. 5:10), Hezekiah (2 Chron. 30:1), Josiah (2 Kings 23:21-23; 2 Chron. 35:1-18), and the returned exiles (Ezra 6:19), as well as by Jesus and his disciples (Matt. 26:2, 17-29; Mark 14:1-16; Luke 22:1-13; John 13:1; 18:39). According to the Synoptics, Jesus' Last Supper with the Twelve was a Passover celebration (Matt. 26; Mark 14; Luke 22) and the model for Christian Communion (the Eucharist) (1 Cor. 11:17-27).
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| pericope | A term used in form criticism to describe a literary unit (a saying, anecdote, parable, or brief narrative) that forms a complete entity in itself and is attached to its context by later editorial commentary. Many of Jesus' pronouncements probably circulated independently as pericopes before they were incorporated into the written Gospel records.
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| Peter | The most prominent of Jesus' twelve chief disciples, Peter was also known as Simon (probably his surname), Simeon (Symeon), and Cephas (the Aramaic equivalent of petros, meaning "the rock" or "stone") (John 1:40-42). The son of Jonas or John (Matt. 16:17; John 1:42; 21:15-17), brother of the apostle Andrew, and a native of Bethsaida, a fishing village on the Sea of Galilee (John 1:44), he was called by Jesus to be "a fisher of men" (Matt. 4:18-20; Mark 1:16-18; Luke 5:1-11). The first to recognize Jesus as the Messiah (Matt. 16:13-20; Mark 8:27-30; Luke 9:18-22), Peter later denied him three times (Matt. 26:69-75; Mark 14:66-72; Luke 22:54-62; John 18:15-18).
Commanded to "feed [the resurrected Jesus'] sheep" (John 21:15-19), Peter became a leader of the Jerusalem church (Acts 1:15-26; 2:14-42; 15:6-12) and miracle worker (Acts 3:1-10) and was instrumental in bringing the first Gentiles into the church (Acts 10-11), although Paul regarded him as a conservative obstacle to this movement (Gal. 2:11-14). He appeared before the Sanhedrin (Acts 4:1-12) and was miraculously rescued from at least one imprisonment (Acts 5:17-42; 12:1-19). A married man (Matt. 8:14; Mark 1:30; Luke 4:8; 1 Cor. 9:5), Peter was to be the "rock" on which Jesus' church was built (Matt. 16:16-20). Although some scholars regard him as the source of 1 Peter, virtually all experts deny Petrine authorship to the second epistle bearing his name. He was martyred under Nero in about 64-65 c.e.
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| Philip | (1) King of Macedonia (359-336 b.c.e.), father of Alexander the Great (1 Macc. 1:1; 6:2). (2) One of the Twelve, a man of Bethsaida in Galilee (Matt. 10:3; Mark 3:18; Luke 6:14; John 1:43-49; 12:21-22; 14:8-9; Acts 1:12-14). (3) An evangelist of the Jerusalem church who was an administrator (Acts 6:1-6) and preacher (Acts 8:4-8), the convertor of Simon the sorcerer (Acts 8:9-13) and of an Ethiopian eunuch (Acts 8:26-39). Paul visited Philip at Caesarea (Acts 21:8-15). (4) A son of Herod the Great and Palestinian tetrarch (4 b.c.e.-34 c.e.) (Luke 3:1).
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| Philo Judaeus | The most influential philosopher of Hellenistic Judaism, Philo was a Greek-educated Jew living in Alexandria, Egypt (c. 20 b.c.e.-50 c.e.), who promoted a method of interpreting the Hebrew Bible allegorically (which may have influenced Paul in such passages as 1 Cor. 10:4 and Gal. 4:24, as well as the authors of the fourth Gospel and Hebrews). His doctrine of the Logos (the divine creative Word) shaped the prologue to the Gospel of John.
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| Pontius Pilate | The Roman prefect (also called a procurator) of Judea (26-36 c.e.) who presided at Jesus' trial for sedition against Rome and sentenced him to be crucified (Luke 3:1; 13:1; 23:1-25; Matt. 27:1-26; Mark 15:1-15; John 18:28-19:22; Acts 3:13; 13:28; 1 Tim. 6:13).
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| Q | An abbreviation for Quelle, the German term for "source," a hypothetical document that many scholars believe contained a collection of Jesus' sayings (logia). The theory of its existence was formed to explain material common to both Matthew and Luke but absent from Mark's Gospel. It is assumed that Matthew and Luke drew on a single source (Q), assembled in about 50-70 c.e., for this shared material.
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| realized eschatology | A belief that events usually associated with the eschaton (world End) are even now realized or fulfilled by Jesus' spiritual presence among believers (John 5:24-25; 11:25-26).
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| redaction criticism | A method of analyzing writ-ten texts that tries to define the purpose and literary procedures of editors (redactors) who compile and edit older documents, transforming shorter works into longer ones, as did the redactor who collected and ordered the words of the prophets into their present biblical form.
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| Samaria | Capital of the northern kingdom (Israel), Samaria was founded by Omri (c. 876-869 b.c.e.) (1 Kings 16:24-25) and included a temple and altar of Baal (1 Kings 16:32). The Assyrians destroyed it in 721 b.c.e. (2 Kings 17), a fate the prophets warned awaited Jerusalem (Isa. 8:4; 10:9-11; Mic. 1:1-7).
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| Samaritans | Inhabitants of the city or territory of Samaria, the central region of Palestine lying west of the Jordan River. According to a probably biased southern account in 2 Kings 17, the Samaritans were regarded by orthodox Jews as descendants of foreigners who had intermarried with survivors of the northern kingdom's fall to Assyria (721 b.c.e.). Separated from the rest of Judaism after about 400 b.c.e., they had a Bible consisting of their own edition of the Pentateuch (Torah) and a temple on Mount Gerizim, which was later destroyed by John Hyrcanus (128 b.c.e.) (Matt. 10:5; Luke 9:52; John 4:20-21). Jesus discussed correct worship with a woman at Jacob's well in Samaria (John 4:5-42) and made a "good Samaritan" the hero of a famous parable (Luke 10:29-37).
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| Sanhedrin | The supreme judicial council of the Jews from about the third century b.c.e. until the Romans destroyed Jerusalem in 70 c.e., its deliberations were led by the High Priest (2 Chron. 19:5-11). Jesus was tried before the Sanhedrin and condemned on charges of blasphemy (Matt. 26:59; Mark 14:55; 15:1; Luke 22:66; John 11:47). Stephen was stoned as a result of its verdict (Acts 6:12-15). Peter, John, and other disciples were hailed before its court (Acts 4:5-21; 5:17-41), and Paul was charged there with violating the Mosaic Torah (Acts 22).
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| Satan | In the Hebrew Bible, "the satan" appears as a prosecutor in the heavenly court among "the sons of God" (Job 1-2; Zech. 3:1-3) and only later as a tempter (1 Chron. 21:1; cf. 2 Sam. 24:1). Although the Hebrew Bible says virtually nothing about Satan's origin, the pseudepigraphal writings contain much legendary material about his fall from heaven and the establishment of a hierarchy of demons and devils. By the time the New Testament was written, he was believed to head a kingdom of Evil and to seek the corruption of all people, including the Messiah (Matt. 4:1-11; Luke 4:1-13). Satan (the "Opposer" or "Adversary") is also "the Evil One" (Matt. 6:13; 13:19; Eph. 6:16; 1 John 2:13; 5:18-19), "the Devil" (Matt. 4:1; 13:39; 25:41; John 8:44; Eph. 4:27), and the primordial serpent who tempted Eve (Rev. 12:9).
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| Sheol | According to the Hebrew Bible, the subterranean region to which the "shades" of all the dead descended, a place of intense gloom, hopelessness, and virtual unconsciousness for its inhabitants. The term was translated Hades in the Greek Septuagint and in later Hellenistic times was regarded as an abode of the dead awaiting resurrection (Gen. 42:38; 1 Sam. 2:6; Job 7:9; 14:13-14; 26:6; Pss. 6:5; 16:10; 55:15; 139:8; Prov. 27:20; Eccles. 9:10; Isa. 14:15; 28:15; 38:10, 18; Hos. 13:14; Jon. 2:2; cf. references to Hades in Matt. 16:18; Luke 10:15; Acts 2:31; Rev. 1:18; 20:15). It is not the same theological concept as hell or Gehenna (Matt. 10:28; 23:33; Mark 9:43; Luke 12:5).
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| Simon | The name of several New Testament figures. (1) Simon Peter (Matt. 4:18; 10:2). (2) One of the twelve apostles, Simon the Canaanite (Matt. 10:4; Mark 3:18), a nationalist Zealot (Luke 6:15; Acts 1:13). (3) One of Jesus' "brothers" (Matt. 13:55; Mark 6:3). (4) A leper whom Jesus cured (Mark 14:3-9). (5) Simon of Cyrene, the man from North Africa who was forced to carry Jesus' cross (Mark 15:21). (6) A Pharisee who entertained Jesus in his home (Luke 7:36-50). (7) Simon Iscariot, father of Judas the traitor (John 6:71; 13:26). (8) A leather tanner of Joppa with whom Peter stayed (Acts 9:43; 10).
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| Son of Man | 1. A Hebrew Bible phrase used to denote a human being (Pss. 8:4; 80:17; 144:3; 146:3; Isa. 56:2; Jer. 51:43), including a plural usage (Pss. 31:19; 33:13; Prov. 8:4; Eccles. 3:18-19; 8:11; 9:12). The phrase is characteristic of the Book of Ezekiel, where it is commonly used to indicate the prophet himself (Ezek. 2:1).
2. In Daniel 7:12-14, "one like a son of man" refers to Israel itself or to a divinely appointed future ruler of Israel, although this figure is not given specific messianic significance.
3. In some pseudepigraphal writings, particularly the Similitudes of the Book of Enoch, he who serves as Yahweh's agent in the coming Day of Judgment is variously called "the Elect One," "the Anointed One," and "the Son of Man."
4. In the Gospels, the phrase is always spoken by Jesus and in most cases applied to himself (Matt. 8:20; 9:6; 11:19; 12:8; 16:27-28; 19:28; 24:30; 28:31; Mark 2:28; 8:38; 9:31; 10:45; 13:26; Luke 12:8-10; 18:8; 21:27; 22:22; John 3:14). Outside the Gospels, it is used only once (Acts 7:56), although the author of Revelation echoes Daniel 7:13 (Rev. 14:14).
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| source criticism | Analysis of a biblical document to discover the sources, written or oral, that the author(s) incorporated into it. Close study of the Pentateuch has led scholars to conclude that at least four main literary units-J, E, D, and P-were blended in its composition.
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| Synoptic Gospels | The first three Gospels, so named because they share a large quantity of material in common, allowing their texts to be viewed together "with one eye."
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| Synoptic Problem | The scholarly term for the question of relationship-the nature of the literary interdependence-of the first three Gospels: Matthew, Mark, and Luke. Most scholars believe that Matthew and Luke are expanded editions of Mark.
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| Thaddeus | One of the most obscure of Jesus' apostles, he is listed among the Twelve in Matthew 10:3 and Mark 3:18 but not in Luke 7:16 or Acts. 1:13.
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| Theophilus | The otherwise unknown man to whom the Gospel of Luke and Book of Acts are addressed. He may have been a Roman official who became a Christian.
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| Thomas | One of the Twelve Apostles (Matt. 10:3; Mark 3:18; Luke 6:15; Acts 1:13), seldom mentioned in the Synoptics but relatively prominent in the fourth Gospel, where he is called Didymus (twin) (John 11:16; 20:24; 21:2). Unable to believe the other disciples' report of Jesus' resurrection, Thomas is suddenly confronted with the risen Jesus and pronounces the strongest confession of faith in the Gospel (John 20:24-29).
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| tradition | (1) Collections of stories and interpretations transmitted orally from generation to generation and embodying the religious history and beliefs of a people or community. Traditions of the patriarchs were eventually included in the J and E sagas and finally incorporated into the first book of the Torah. (2) Oral explanations, interpretations, and applications of the written Torah (1 Chron. 4:22; Mark 7:5, 9; Matt. 15:2; Gal. 1:15), many of which were eventually compiled in the Mishnah. (3) Recollections and interpretations concerning Jesus that circulated orally through various early Christian churches and some of which were included in the Gospel narratives (1 Cor. 15:1-8; 2 Thess. 2:15).
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| Transfiguration | A supernatural happening that Jesus' three closest disciples-Peter, James, and John-experienced when, alone with him on an isolated mountaintop, they saw Jesus transformed into a being of light accompanied by Elijah (symbolizing the Hebrew prophetic tradition) and Moses (symbolizing the Torah) (Matt. 17:1-13; Mark 9:2-13; Luke 9:28-36). A heavenly voice identified Jesus as his "beloved son," thus revealing Jesus as the culmination of and superior to the Law and prophets.
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| Trinity | A post-New Testament doctrine that posits God existing as three divine persons in One: Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. After generations of ecclesiastical debate on the subject had seriously divided the church, Constantine, the first Christian emperor of Rome but then unbaptized, called a council of church leaders in Nicea to settle the issue (325 c.e.). The council decreed the orthodoxy of the trinitarian formula, so that the mystery of trinity in unity henceforth became central to the Christian faith (Matt. 28:19-20; 2 Cor. 13:14; Gal. 1:1-5).
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| Twelve, the | The twelve apostles whom Jesus specifically chose to follow him. Different names appear on different New Testament lists of the Twelve (Matt. 10:1-5; Mark 3:16-19; Luke 6:12-16; Acts 1:13-14).
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| Wisdom | A personification of the divine attribute of creative intelligence, pictured in the form of a gracious woman (Yahweh's daughter) who mediates between God and humanity (Prov. 1:20-33; 8:1-31; 9:1-6; Ecclus. 24; etc.). This Hebrew concept of Wisdom merges with the Greek philosophic doctrine of the heavenly Logos in John's Gospel (John 1:1-18) and Colossians (1-2).
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| Zebedee | A Galilean fisherman, husband of Salome, father of the apostles James and John (Matt. 27:56; Mark 1:19-20; 3:17; 14:33; 15:40).
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| Zechariah | 1. The son of Jehoiada the priest, Zechariah was stoned to death for denouncing Judah's idolatry (late ninth century b.c.e.) (2 Chron. 25:20- 22; he is usually identified with Zacharias in Matt. 23:35 and Luke 11:51).
2. The son of Jeroboam II and the last king of Jehu's dynasty in Israel, who reigned only six months (c. 746/745 b.c.e.) before he was murdered (2 Kings 10:30).
3. The son of Berechiah or the priest Iddo (Zech. 1:1, 8; Ezra 5:1; Neh. 12:16), a Judean prophet whose message is contained in the book of the Minor Prophets bearing his name.
The latter, a contemporary of Haggai (c. 520-515 b.c.e.), urged the returned exiles to rebuild Yahweh's Temple in Jerusalem. Although Judah was then part of the Persian Empire ruled by Darius, he apparently regarded the Jewish governor, Zerubbabel, a descendant of David, as a potential messianic king (Zech. 4:6-15; 6:9-14). His work is characterized by strange imagery and apocalyptic visions. Chapters 9-14 of the Book of Zechariah are thought to have been appended by a later author.
4. A Judean priest married to Elisabeth, a descendant of Aaron, whose long, childless marriage was blessed in his old age by the birth of the future John the Baptist (Luke 1:5-25, 57-80; 3:2). A vision foretelling the birth rendered him temporarily paralyzed, but he recovered his speech in time to name the child and to utter a prayer of thanksgiving-the Benedictus (Luke 1:67-79).
5. A Jewish martyr mentioned in Jesus' phrase "from Abel to Zecharias" (Matt. 23:35; Luke 11:51), usually identified with Zechariah, son of Jehoiada in 2 Chronicles 24:20-24.
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2003 McGraw-Hill Higher Education