Student Center | Instructor Center | Information Center | Home

Communicating at Work: Principles and Practices for Business and Professions, 7/e

Ronald B. Adler
Jeanne Marquardt Elmhorst

Glossary

"I" language	Language in which the communicator describes his or her feelings, needs, and behaviors without accusing others. (5)



"You" language	Language that often begins with the word you and accuses or evaluates the other person.



Action-oriented listening style	A listening style in which the listener's primary concern is understanding and organizing facts to accomplish a task or get a job done. See also Content-oriented listening style, People-oriented listening style. (4)



Advising	A type of listening in which the listener responds with ideas and suggestions about what the speaker should think or do. (4)



Agenda	A list of topics to be covered in a meeting. Agendas also usually note the meeting's time, length, and location and the members who will attend. Complete agendas also provide background information and outcome goals. (9)



Analyzing	A type of listening in which the listener responds with his or her insights about what is being said. (4)



Anchor	A listener's preexisting position on an issue being advocated. (14)



Audioconferencing	The holding of a conference among three or more geographically separated persons by means of simultaneous telephone connections. (1)



Audition interview	A type of interview in which a prospective employer asks the candidate to demonstrate (rather than describe) his/her ability to perform a job-related task. (7)



Authoritarian leadership style	A leadership style in which the designated leader uses legitimate, coercive, and reward power to control members. (8)



Authority rule	A group decision-making method in which a designated leader makes a final decision, either with or without consulting group members. (8)



Bar chart	A chart consisting of horizontal bars that depict the values of several items in comparative terms. (12)



Bargaining orientation	An approach to negotiation in which competitive communicators assume that one side's gains must be matched by the other side's losses. (5)



Bargaining orientation	An approach to negotiation in which competitive communicators assume that one side's gains must be matched by the other side's losses. (5)



Biased language	Any statement that seems to be objective but actually conceals the speaker's emotional attitude. (3)



Bona fide occupational qualification (BFOQ)	A job requirement that is deemed reasonably necessary for the performance of a particular job. In employment interviewing, only questions exploring BFOQs are lawful. (7)



Brainstorming	An approach to idea generation that encourages free thinking and minimizes conformity. (8)



Briefing	An informative presentation that succinctly informs listeners about a specific task at hand. (14)



Cause-effect pattern	An organizational arrangement which shows that events happened or will happen as a result of certain circumstances. (11)



Channel	The method or medium used to deliver a message (e.g., face-to-face communication, written memos, or the telephone). (1)



Chronological context	Factors involving time and timing that affect the transmission and reception of a message. (1)



Chronological pattern	An organizational arrangement that presents points according to their sequence in time. (11)



Citations	A type of support in which the speaker quotes or paraphrases authoritative or articulate sources. (12)



Claim	A statement asserting a fact or belief. (11)



Closed questions	Questions that restrict the interviewee's responses, usually to yes or no, a number or item from preselected items, or an either-or response. (6)



Co-culture	A group that has a clear identity within the encompassing culture. (2)



Coercive power	The ability to influence others that arises because one can impose punishment or unpleasant consequences. (8)



Cohesiveness	The degree to which group members feel part of and want to remain with the group. (8)



Collectivist culture	A culture with strong social frameworks in which members of a group (such as an organization) are socialized to care for one another and for the group. (2)



Column chart	A visual exhibit consisting of vertical columns that depict the quantity of one or more items at different times; used to show changes in quantity over time. (12)



Communication climate	A metaphor used to describe the quality of relationships in an organization. (5)



Communication climate	A metaphor used to describe the quality of relationships in an organization. (5)



Comparative-advantages organizational plan	An organizational strategy that puts several alternatives side by side and shows why one is the best. (14)



Comparisons	A type of support in which the speaker shows how one idea is similar to another; may be figurative or literal. (12)



Compromise	An orientation toward negotiation which assumes that each side needs to lose at least some of what it was seeking. (5)



Computer conferencing	A form of technology that allows individuals to work on a single document via computer, making changes that can be viewed by other participants. (1)



Confirming messages	Messages that express value toward other persons. (5)



Conflict phase	The second of Aubrey Fisher's four group problem-solving phases; characterized by members' taking strong stands that result in conflict within the group. (8)



Connection power	The ability to influence that arises because of one's connections and associations inside and outside the organization. (8)



Consensus	A decision-making method in which the group as a whole makes a decision that each member is willing to support. (8)



Content messages	The dimension of messages that focus upon the topic under discussion. See also Relational messages. (1)



Content messages	The dimension of messages that focus upon the topic under discussion. See also Relational messages. (1)



Context	The environment of physical, social, chronological, and cultural variables that surrounds any process of communication. (1)



Contingency approaches to leadership	Leadership theories which assert that the most effective leadership style is flexible, changing as needed with the context. (8)



Counterfeit questions	Utterances that appear to be questions but are actually statements, forms of advice, traps, or attacks on the speaker. (4)



Credibility	The persuasive force that comes from the audience's belief in and respect for the speaker. (14)



Criteria satisfaction organizational plan	An organizational strategy that sets up standards (criteria) that the audience accepts and then shows how the speaker's idea or product meets the criteria. (14)



Cultural context	Factors relating to the organizational or broader cultures of communicators that affect the transmission and reception of a message. (1)



Culture	The set of values, beliefs, norms, customs, rules, and codes that lead people to define themselves as a distinct group, giving them a sense of commonality. (2)



Decoding	The process of attaching meaning to words, symbols, or behaviors. (1)



Democratic leadership style	A leadership style in which the designated leader encourages members to share decision making. (8)



Democratic leadership style	A leadership style in which the designated leader encourages members to share decision making. (8)



Designated leader	A leader whose title indicates a leadership role, either by appointment or by group selection. (8)



Diagnostic interview	An interview in which professionals (e.g., doctors and lawyers) gather information on their patients' or clients' needs. (7)



Direct question (in a group)	A question addressed (by name) to a particular individual. (9)



Direct questions (in an interview)	Straightforward questions that ask exactly what the interviewer wants to know. (6)



Disconfirming messages	Messages that show a lack of valuing for other persons. (5)



Document conferencing	See Computer conferencing.



Downward communication	Communication that flows from superiors to subordinates. (1)



Electronic mail (e-mail)	A communication system whereby messages are exchanged via computer networks. (1)



E-mail	See Electronic mail.



Emergence phase	The third of Aubrey Fisher's four group problem-solving phases; characterized by an end to conflict and emergence of harmony within the group. (8)



Emergent leader	A leader chosen by the group, either officially or informally. (8)



Emergent leader	A leader chosen by the group, either officially or informally. (8)



Employment interview	An interview designed to judge the qualifications and desirability of a candidate for a job. (7)



Encoding	The intentional process of creating a message. (1)



Equivocal terms	Words with more than one meaning. Equivocation can lead to unintentional misunderstandings. In contrast, strategic ambiguity is often used in business to promote harmony and soften the blow of unpleasant messages. (3)



Examples	Brief illustrations that back up or explain a claim. (12)



Exit interview	An interview designed to discover why an employee is leaving an organization. (7)



Expert opinion	A decision-making method in which a single person perceived as an expert makes a decision for the group. (8)



Expert power	The ability to influence that arises because of one's knowledge, ability, and expertise in a particular area. (8)



Explanation	An informative presentation that increases listeners' understanding of a subject. (14)



Extemporaneous presentation	A type of delivery in which the major ideas are planned and rehearsed but the speech is given spontaneously from notes. (13)



External noise	(Also called physical noise.) Sounds or physical environmental factors (smells, barriers that block vision) that interfere with communication. (1)



Factual questions	Questions that ask for verifiable, factual information rather than opinion. (6)



Feedback	The recognizable response of a receiver to a sender's message. (1)



Flip chart	A large pad of paper, attached to an easel, that is used to create and/or display visuals. (12)



Formal communication networks	Officially designated paths of communication designed by management to indicate who should communicate with whom. (1)



Functional roles	Types of behavior that are necessary if a group is to do its job effectively. See also Task roles and Relational roles. (8)



Funnel sequence	A sequence of interview questions that begins with a broad question and grows increasingly more specific. (6)



General purpose	A broad indication of the purpose of a speech, generally to inform, persuade, or entertain. (10)



Graph	A visual display that shows the correlation between two quantities. (12)



Groupthink	A condition in which group members are unwilling to critically examine ideas because of their desire to maintain harmony. (8)



Hidden agenda	A group member's personal goal that is not made public. (8)



High-context culture	A culture that relies heavily on subtle, often nonverbal cues to convey meaning and maintain social harmony. (2)



High-level abstractions	Terms that cover a broad range of possible objects or events without describing them in much detail. (3)



Highly structured interview	An interview that consists of a standardized list of questions, sometimes in precise order and wording, as in research interviews. (6)



Horizontal (lateral) communication	Communication in which messages flow between members of an organization who have equal power or responsibility. (1)



Hypothetical questions	Questions that ask an interviewee how he or she might respond under certain circumstances. (6)



Impromptu presentation	A type of delivery in which the speaker has little or no preparation time before presenting his or her remarks. (13)



Indirect questions	Questions that get at information the interviewer wants to know without asking for it directly. (6)



Individualistic culture	A culture whose members are inclined to put their own interests and those of their immediate families ahead of social concerns. (2)



Informal communication networks	Patterns of interaction that are based on proximity, friendships, and shared interests. (1)



Information power	The ability to influence that arises because of one's access to otherwise obscure information. (8)



Instant messaging (IM)	An Internet-based tool that allows the exchange of typed messages between two or more people in real time. (1)



Interjection	A word or phrase inserted into a presentation to highlight an idea's importance or placement. (14)



Interview	A two-party somewhat structured conversation in which at least one person has a specific purpose. (6)



Intranet	An infrastructure that allows people within an organization to exchange information in digital form. (1)



Inverted funnel sequence	A sequence of interview questions that begins with specific, closed questions and introduces increasingly broader questions. (6)



Investigative interview	An interview designed to discover the causes of an incident or problem. (7)



Jargon	Specialized terminology used by members of a particular group. The word is used in a derogatory sense when applied to language that is overly obscure. (3)



Laissez-faire leadership style	A leadership style in which the leader gives up power and transforms a group into a leaderless collection of equals. (8)



Lateral communication	See Horizontal communication.



Latitude of acceptance	The range of positions or arguments a person would accept with little or no persuasion. (14)



Latitude of noncommitment	The range of positions or arguments a person neither accepts nor rejects. (14)



Latitude of rejection	The range of positions or arguments a person opposes. (14)



Leading questions	Questions that direct the interviewee to answer in a certain way, often by indicating the answer the interviewer wants to hear. (6)



Legitimate power	The ability to influence that arises because of one's position (e.g., judge, elder, professor, president). (8)



Life-cycle theory of leadership	An approach to understanding leadership which suggests that a leader's attention to tasks and relationships should vary depending on the organizational maturity of subordinates. (8)



Listen-and-tell performance appraisal style	An approach to performance appraisal in which the interviewer (usually a supervisor) first listens to the subordinate and then gives feedback on the subordinate's performance. (7)



Lose-lose orientation	An approach to negotiation in which one party's perceived loss leads to an outcome with negative consequences for the other parties. (5)



Low-context culture	A culture that uses language primarily to express thoughts, feelings, and ideas as clearly and logically as possible. (2)



Low-level abstractions	Highly specific statements that refer directly to objects or events that can be observed. (3)



Majority vote	A decision-making method in which a vote is taken and the item with the most votes is the one accepted. (8)



Manuscript presentation	A type of delivery in which the speaker reads word for word from prepared remarks. (13)



Meeting	Any focused conversation that has a specific agenda; usually, but not always, scheduled in advance. (9)



Memorized presentation	A type of delivery in which the speech is memorized and recited word for word from memory. (13)



Message	Any symbol or behavior from which others create meaning or which triggers a response. (1)



Minority decision	A decision-making method in which a few members make a decision for the whole group. (8)



Moderately structured interview	A flexible interview in which major topics, their order, questions, and probes are planned but not rigidly adhered to. (6)



Motivated-sequence organizational plan	An organizational strategy that presents a topic in terms of five sequential concepts: attention, need, satisfaction, visualization, and action. (14)



Negotiation	Discussion of specific proposals for the purpose of finding a mutually acceptable agreement or settlement. (5)



Networks	See Communication networks.



Noise	Any factor that interferes with a message. Such factors are also called barriers or interference. See also External noise, Physiological noise, and Psychological noise. (1)



Nominal group technique (NGT)	A five-phase method for giving group members' ideas equal chance at consideration. (9)



Nonstructured interview	An interview that consists of a topical agenda but no planned, specific questions. (6)



Nonverbal communication	Communication that consists of messages sent by nonlinguistic means, either visually, physically, or vocally. (3)



Norms	Informal rules about what behavior is appropriate in a group. Explicit norms are made clear by speaking about them or writing them out. Implicit norms are not openly discussed but are known and understood by group members. (8)



Open questions	Questions that invite a broad, detailed response. See also Closed questions. (6)



Opinion questions	Questions that seek the respondent's judgment about a topic. (6)



Organizational chart	A drawing or model that shows the levels of authority and reporting relationships in an organization. (1)



Organizational culture	A relatively stable picture of an organization that is shared by its members. (2)



Orientation phase	The first of Aubrey Fisher's four problem-solving phases of groups; characterized by tentative statements and getting-acquainted types of communication. (8)



Overhead question	A question directed at all members of a group, inviting a response from any member. (9)



Panel interview	An interview conducted by a group of questioners with whom the candidate will work, who are commonly from different levels within an organization. (7)



Paralanguage	Nonlinguistic vocal qualities such as rate, pitch, volume, and pauses. (3)



Paraphrasing	Listening to another and restating what has been said in your own words. Both feelings and factual content can be paraphrased. (4)



Parliamentary procedure	An established set of rules that govern the process of conducting meetings. Codified in Robert's Rules of Order.. (9)



Passive listening	Listening characterized by a mixture of silence and prompts (e.g., "Uh-huh," "Really?," "Tell me more") that invite the speaker to keep going. (4)



People-oriented listening style	A style of listening in which the listener is most concerned with creating and maintaining positive interpersonal relationships. See also Action-oriented listening style, Content-oriented listening style, Time-oriented listening style. (4)



Performance appraisal interview	An interview, usually conducted by a superior, in which the quality of a subordinate's work is discussed. (7)



Persuasion	The act of motivating an audience, through communication, to voluntarily change a particular belief. (14)



Physical context	The environmental factors that affect the transmission and reception of a message. (1)



Physiological noise	Any physiological factor that interferes with communication (e.g., hearing disorders, speech impediments). (1)



Pictogram	A visual support that employs an artistic or pictorial variation of a bar, column, or pie chart. (12)



Pie chart	A round chart that is divided into segments to illustrate percentages of a whole. (12)



Power distance	A measure of a culture's acceptance (high or low) of differences in authority. (2)



Presentation software	Computer software programs (e.g., Microsoft PowerPoint) that create displays used in presentations. Such programs typically include capabilities for creating special audio, visual, and transition effects, speaker notes and handouts. (12)



Primary questions	Interview questions that introduce a new topic or a new area within a topic. See also Secondary questions. (6)



Problem-oriented messages	Messages that aim at meeting the needs of both the sender and the other party. (5)



Problem-solution pattern (organizational plan)	An organizational arrangement in which the speaker first convinces the audience that a problem exists and then presents a plan to solve it. (11, 14)



Problem-solving performance appraisal style	An approach to performance appraisal in which the employee and manager work together to identify areas of concern and appropriate solutions. (7)



Psychological noise	Any force within a receiver's mind that interferes with accurate encoding or decoding (e.g., prejudices, emotions, biases, defensiveness). (1)



Questioning	Listening responses that seek additional information from a speaker. See also Analyzing, Advising, Supporting, and Paraphrasing. (4)



Rapport talk	Language that creates connections, establishes goodwill, and builds community; more typically used by women. (3)



Receiver	Any person who perceives a message and attaches meaning to it, whether the message was intended for that person or not. (1)



Referent power	The ability to influence because one is respected or liked by the group. (8)



Reflective-thinking sequence	A seven-step problem-solving approach developed by John Dewey. (8)



Reinforcement phase	The fourth of Aubrey Fisher's four group problem-solving phases; characterized by members' active endorsement of group decisions. (8)



Relational messages	The dimension of messages that focus on how communicators feel about one another. See also Content messages. (1)



Relational roles	Functional roles that help facilitate smooth interaction among members. (8)



Relay question	In groups, a question asked by one member which the leader then addresses to the entire group. (9)



Relevancy challenge	A request that asks a group member to explain how his or her seemingly off-track idea relates to the group task. (9)



Report	An informative presentation that describes the state of an operation. (14)



Report talk	Language that conveys information, facts, knowledge, and competence; more typically used by men. (3)



Research interview	An interview designed to gather data on which to base a decision. (7)



Reverse question	In groups, a question asked of the leader which the leader refers back to the person who asked it. (9)



Reward power	The ability to influence that arises because one can induce desirable consequences or rewards. (8)



Rhetorical question	A question with an obvious answer, which does not call for an overt response. (11)



Risky shift	A type of harmful conformity in which groups take positions that are more extreme (on the side of either caution or risk) than the positions of individual members. (8)



Roles	Patterns of behavior expected of individual group members. (8)



Scannable resume	A resume prepared in plain text format with clear key words and phrases to be "read" and evaluated by software to screen potential job candidates. (7)



Secondary questions	Interview questions that seek additional information about a topic that is under discussion. See also Primary questions. (6)



Self-directed work teams	Groups that manage their own behavior to accomplish a task. (8)



Sender	Any person who sends a message, whether intentionally or unintentionally. (1)



Signpost	In presentations, a word, phrase, or sentence that tells listeners how new information relates to the topic. (14)



Sincere questions	Requests for information that are genuinely meant to help the listener understand. See also Counterfeit questions. (4)



Social context	Relational factors that affect the transmission and reception of a message. (1)



Spatial pattern	An organizational arrangement that presents material according to its physical location. (11)



Specific purpose	A concrete statement of what response a speaker is seeking as the result of his or her remarks. (10)



Statistics	Numbers used to represent an idea. (12)



Stories	Detailed descriptions of incidents that illustrate a point; may be factual or hypothetical. (12)



Style approach to leadership	An approach to studying leadership based on the assumption that the designated leader's style of communication affects the group's effectiveness. (8)



Supporting	A type of listening in which the listener responds with reassurance or comfort. (4)



Supporting material	Material that backs up claims in a presentation. (12)



Survey interview	An interview conducted with a number of people to gather information for conclusions, interpretations, or future action. (7)



Task roles	Functional roles that are needed to accomplish a group's mission. (8)



Team	A small, interdependent collection of people with a common identity who interact with one another, usually face-to-face over time, in order to reach a goal. (8)



Tell-and-listen performance appraisal style	An approach to performance appraisal in which the manager first describes his or her assessment and then listens to the employee's input. (7)



Tell-and-sell performance appraisal style	An approach to performance appraisal in which the manager states his or her evaluation of the employee and then tries to persuade the employee of its accuracy. (7)



Thesis statement	A single sentence that summarizes the central idea of a presentation. (10)



Time-oriented listening style	A listening style in which the listener thinks most about efficiency and prefers a fast pace. Such listeners often appear impatient. See also Action-oriented listening style, Content-oriented listening style, People-oriented listening style. (4)



Topical pattern	An organizational arrangement in which ideas are grouped around logical themes or divisions of the subject. (11)



Training	An informative presentation that teaches listeners how to perform a task. (14)



Trait approach to leadership	A leadership theory based on the belief that all leaders possess common traits that make them effective. (8)



Transition	A statement used between parts of a presentation to help listeners understand the relationship of the parts to one another and to the thesis. (11)



Transparency	A clear sheet used with an overhead projector to cast an image on a screen. (12)



Trigger words	Terms that have such strong emotional associations that they set off an intense emotional reaction in certain listeners. (3)



Tunnel sequence	A series of interview questions, all of equal depth. See also Funnel sequence, Inverted funnel sequence. (6)



Uncertainty avoidance	A measure of how accepting a culture is of a lack of predictability. (2)



Upward communication	Communication that flows from subordinates to superiors. (1)



Videoconferencing	The holding of a meeting or conference by means of audio and visual transmissions that enable two or more geographically separated persons to see, hear, and talk to each other. (1)



Virtual team	A team which conducts most or all of its work-via electronic channels. (8)



Win-win orientation	A collaborative approach to negotiation which assumes that solutions can be reached that meet the needs of all parties. (5)



Work group	A small, interdependent collection of people with a common identity who interact with one another, usually face-to-face over time, in order to reach a goal. (8)

2002 McGraw-Hill Higher Education
Any use is subject to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy.
McGraw-Hill Higher Education is one of the many fine businesses of The McGraw-Hill Companies.